A  Concise  Histoid  of  flissi 


mi 


E, M..  BLISS,  ao. 


^  •Dr>T'Mr«T7'rr\-NT      •nt     t 


PRINCETON,    N.  J. 


Purchased  by  the  Hammill    Missionary  Fund. 


BV  2100  .B6  1897 

Bliss,  Edwin  Munsell, 

1848- 

1919. 

A  concise  history  of 

rrn  c^.Q^-mnsL   

A  Concise  History  of  Missions 


A  Concise  History  of 
Missions 


By     y  ^ 

Edwin  Munsell  Bliss,  D.D, 

Editor  of  "  The  Encyclopedia  of  Missions  " 


How  beautiful  upon  the  mountains  are  the  feet  of  him  that 
bringeth  good  tidings,  that  publisheth  peace  Qhat  bringeth 
goodtidings  of  good,  that  publisheth  salvation.— Is.  LXII.  7. 


New  York       Chicago       Toronto 
Fleming  H.  Revell  Company 

Publishers  of  Evangelical  Literature 


Copyright,  1897,  by 
Fleming  H.  Revell  Company 


THE  NEW  YORK  TYPE-SETTING  COMPANY 
THE  CAXTON   PRESS 


PREFACE 

The  history  of  missions  is  the  history  of  the 
extension  of  Christianity.  It  is  thus  a  depart- 
ment of  general  church  history,  and  cannot  be 
fully  understood  except  as  its  relations  to  other 
departments  are  kept  in  mind.  The  progress  of 
the  Church  has  been  by  no  means  uniform.  There 
have  been  periods  of  special  missionary  activity, 
others  in  which  doctrinal  statement,  ecclesiastical 
organization,  the  consohdation  and  strengthening 
of  church  life,  have  absorbed  attention.  Each, 
however,  has  had  its  influence  on  all  the  others, 
and  the  work  as  a  whole  has  a  unity  which  can 
only  be  realized  as  one  takes  a  survey  of  the 
whole  field. 

Such  a  survey  it  is  the  purpose  of  this  book  to 
give.  There  is  no  detailed  statement  of  different 
epochs  or  of  the  various  phases  of  mission  work. 
The  aim  is  rather  to  indicate  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  epochs,  show  the  mutual  relation  and 
influence  of  the  phases,  and  thus  make  it  some- 
what easier  to  place  correctly  the  details  as  we 
come  across  them  elsewhere.  To  use  the  phrase 
of  one  who  has  himself  done  much  to  help  in  the 
general  knowledge  of  missions,  Mr.  John  R. 
Mott,  it  lays  the  rails  that  connect  the  remoter 
sections  and  make  passage  from  one  to  another 
possible. 

z 


2  PREFACE 

In  order  to  secure  better  perspective,  the 
general  subject  is  treated  in  three  separate  parts. 
The  first  part  traces  the  development  of  the  mis- 
sionary idea  and  spirit  in  the  Church  itself,  from 
apostolic  times  to  the  present.  The  second  takes 
up  the  different  fields,  sketching  the  progress  of 
both  their  occupation  and  development.  In  the 
third  the  organization  and  methods  adopted  in 
the  prosecution  of  the  work  are  set  forth  as  they 
have  developed  historically,  from  the  very  simple 
forms  of  the  apostolic  age  to  the  more  elaborate 
and  somewhat  complex  system  now  in  use.  There 
is  no  attempt  to  discuss  the  relative  value  of  dif- 
ferent methods,  or  the  comparative  success  at 
different  times  and  in  different  fields,  although 
certain  evident  results  are  stated. 

In  so  brief  a  survey  many  important  facts  are 
of  necessity  omitted — some,  indeed,  which  may 
seem  to  the  reader  of  greater  value  than  others 
that  find  a  place.  Statistics  and  details  are  given 
only  as  they  illustrate  principles  that  underlie 
mission  work  and  are  essential  to  mission  success. 
If  the  effect  shall  be  to  stimulate  the  interest  not 
only  of  those  who  go  themselves  to  the  foreign 
field,  but  of  those  who  remain  at  home,  and  thus 
assist  to  bind  all  together  in  the  one  great  work 
of  building  up  the  kingdom  of  God  in  every  land 
and  among  every  people,  its  own  mission  will  be 
accomplished. 

Edwin  Munsell  Bliss. 

New  York, 
October  i,  1897. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I.  General  History 


Apostolic  and  Medieval  Missions  .  .  .15 
Apostles  the  leaders — Individuals  the  great 
workers— Consolidation;  no  great  leaders  in 
missions— Extension  over  Asia  and  Africa; 
testimony  of  church  fathers — Organization ;  little 
missionary  activity ;  Ulfilas  and  the  Goths — New 
problems ;  invasions  from  the  North ;  Clovis ; 
Columba  at  lona;  Nestorians  —  Dark  ages;  mis- 
sionary advance ;  central  Europe,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  Iceland— The  Slavs;  Cyril  and 
Methodius  —  Missions  in  Asia;  Nestorians  and 
Franciscans  in  China — Islam  ;  the  crusades — 
Raymond  Lull  in  North  Africa — R^sum^  of 
fifteen  centuries. 

II 

Roman  Catholic  Missions 28 

Early  mission  work  by  the  undivided  church ; 
break  occasioned  by  the  Reformation— Maritime 
discoveries  by  Spaniards  and  Portuguese ;  Africa 
and  India — Jesuits  arid  other  orders  distinctively 
missionary — Francis  Xavier ;  India,  Japan,  China 
— Xavier's  successors ;  accommodation  to  hea- 
then customs— Results  in  Asia :  great  numbers  of 

3 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

converts  ;  poor  foundation  in  character  ;  no  ver- 
sions of  the  Bible— Africa;  west-coast  missions 
unsuccessful — America,  Central  and  South — 
United  States  and  Canada ;  more  difficult  work 
among  the  North  American  Indians— The  Le- 
vant ;  work  chiefly  in  the  Eastern  Church — Pres- 
ent missions  ;  chiefly  Africa,  China,  Japan— The 
Propaganda,  organization  and  conduct  of — Gen- 
eral support ;  small  contributions  from  the  peo- 
ple ;  French  societies. 


Ill 


Early  Protestant  Missions  .  .  .  .39 
Long  delay  after  the  Reformation— First  en- 
terprises ;  Huguenots  in  Brazil;  Sweden — Dutch 
colonies ;  East  Indies,  Ceylon,  India— English 
colonies ;  American  Indians — Von  Welz,  Aus- 
trian baron;  appeal  for  missions— Pietists  at 
Frankfort  and  Halle — Danish  Tamil  mission; 
Ziegenbalg  in  Tranquebar ;  Copenhagen  College 
—  Moravians  ;  Zinzendorf — Development  of  mis- 
sions ;  Greenland,  West  Indies,  America— Ex- 
tent in  other  continents  — Methodism;  Wesley 
in  America — Colonial  extension;  influence  of 
England,  Holland,  Denmark. 


IV 

British  Missions 52 

Calvinism  asserting  itself— First  steps  in  Eng- 
land— William  Carey ;  Baptist  Missionary  Society 
—  Baptist  missions — London  Missionary  Society, 
uniting  different  denominations ;  extension  of 
work— Church  of  England;  evangelical  move- 
ment— Church  Missionary  Society;  Henry  Mar- 
tyn — The  Wesleyans  ;  Wesleyan  Methodist  Mis- 
sionary Society — Scotch  societies,  Edinburgh, 
Glasgow ;  Established,  Free,  and  United 
Churches  — Bible  and  other  societies;  England 
and  Scotland — Specialization  of  work;  larger 
societies  subdivided— Aid  societies — Faith  so- 
cieties ;  China  Inland  Mission— Women's  so- 
cieties. 


CONTENTS 


V 

PAGE 

American  Missions 68 

America,  mission  ground— Influence  of  Eng- 
land; Carey  and  others  —  American  Board — 
Development  of  missions  —  Baptist  missions; 
Adoniram  Judson — Outgrowths  from  the  Ameri- 
can and  Baptist  boards — Presbyterian  missions 
— Old  and  New  School;  relation  to  American 
Board— Other  Presbyterian  missions— Methodist 
missions,  North  and  South ;  African  and  Protes- 
tant— Other  societies :  Episcopal,  Lutheran, 
Disciples,  Friends,  American  Bible  Society,  In- 
ternational Missionary  Alliance — Associate  move- 
ments ;  women's  boards — Student  movements; 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association — Canadian 
missions  :  Methodist,  Presbyterian,  Baptist,  Con- 
gregational. 

VI 

European  and  Other  Missions  .  .  .85 
Basle  and  Berlin — Basle  Society — Berlin  and 
Rhenish  societies — Confessionalism ;  discussion 
on,  resulting  in  Leipzig,  Gossner,  and  other 
societies — Other  German  societies  :  Hermanns- 
burg,  Breklum,  etc. — Danish  missions — Norway 
and  Sweden — Dutch  missions  —  French  societies 
— Colonial  societies  ;  West  Indies,  South  Africa, 
Australasia — Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association. 


PART  II.  Development  of  the  Field 


I 

North  and  South  America  .  .  .  .99 
Roman  Catholic  missions ;  progress  easy  in 
Central  and  South  America,  more  difficult  in 
North  America — Protestant  missions  to  Eski- 
mos; Greenland,  Labrador,  Alaska — Missions  to 
Indians ;  New  England,  Middle  and  Western 
States,    British    America,    Central    and    South 


CONTENTS 

PAGB 

America,  Patagonia— Missions  to  negroes  ;  West 
Indies,  Central  America,  South  America— Mis- 
sions to  Roman  Catholics  ;  Mexico,  Central  and 
South  America — European  missions  ;  Italy,  Aus- 
tria, Spain — Character  and  methods  in  different 
sections. 


II 

Africa no 

Peculiarcharacteristicsof  missions— Geograph- 
ical discovery — European  occupation;  political 
divisions  — Missionary  problem,  varying  accord- 
ing to  the  section  —  No  uniform  methods;  in- 
dustrial missions  prominent— Early  enterprises; 
Roman  Catholics  and  Moravians  —  Present-cen- 
tury missions  ;  London  Missionary  Society  the 
pioneer — South  Africa,  societies  occupying — 
West  Africa,  societies  occupying — East  Africa; 
Uganda  and  Great  Lakes— Central  Africa ;  Congo 
region — North  Africa— Madagascar,  societies 
occupying;  French  annexation. 


Ill 

The  Levant 127 

Late  in  attracting  missionary  interest— Ameri- 
can missions  ;  Jerusalem,  Beirut,  Constantinople 
—  Missionary  problem  ;  Islam,  Judaism,  Oriental 
Church— Plan  adopted;  reform  of  the  Oriental 
Church — Extension;  Asia  Minor  and  Syria;  en- 
trance of  other  societies— Opposition,  ecclesias- 
tical and  political  rather  than  governmental; 
formation  of  Protestant  communities — Develop- 
ment; cordial  relations  with  old  Churches — 
Methods  :  education  ;  schools  and  colleges— Bible 
translation  and  distribution  ;  American  Bible  So- 
ciety—Native churches;  organization  — Self-sup- 
port ;  difficulties  encountered ;  missionaries  and 
natives — Turkish  government,  indifferent,  after- 
ward hostile — Greece— Egypt— Bulgaria— Per- 
sia— Arabia— Effect  upon  the  Eastern  Churches  : 
Armenian,  Greek,  Coptic,  Nestorian,  Bulgarian 
— Islam. 


CONTENTS 
IV 


PAGE 


India /  '^ 

Mission  work  practically  commenced  with 
Carey— Occupation  of  the  field;  entrance  of  va- 
rious societies— East  India  Company,  hostile, 
afterward  friendly,  and  in  some  respects  very 
useful— Missionary  problem;  three  classes: 
Brahmins,  Moslems,  and  Pariahs;  early  effort 
chiefly  for  the  Brahmins— Time  propitious  ;  Eng- 
lish rule  prepared  the  way— Carey's  initiative; 
Scripture  translations  and  Christian  literature; 
broad  views — American  missions;  entrance  of 
different  societies;  educational  policy— English 
and  Scotch  missions  ;  educational  policy— Direct 
evangelism  ;  great  success  among  Telugus  and 
Sweepers— Zenana  work;  efiforts  for  relief  of 
women— Other  methods  :  Bible,  tract,  and  medi- 
cal work  ;  leper  asylums  ;  Young  Men's  Christian 
Associations— The  Native  Church;  relation  to 
caste;  comity;  a  National  Church— Hindu  reform 
movements ;  Brahmo-  and  Arya-Somajes ;  the 
Vedanta. 


Southeastern  Asia 162 

Peculiar  characteristics  of  the  field— Burma; 
Judson;the  Karens;  Assam;  Arakan— Nature 
of  the  work;  differences  between  Buddhists; 
persecution;  rapid  growth  of  churches— Siam; 
relation  to  China;  Presbyterian  Board— Relation 
to  the  government;  influence  of  missionaries- 
Progress  of  the  work ;  great  success  among  the 
Laos— Malaysia— Dutch  East  Indies  ;  Dutch  so- 
cieties ;  Borneo,  New  Guinea. 


VI 

China i73 

Nestorians ;  Roman  Catholics—  Protestant 
missions  ;  hostility  of  the  government— Mis- 
sionary problem  ;  intellectual  pride,  state  religion, 
anti-foreign  feeling— First  American  missionaries 


9  CONTENTS 

PAGB 

—English  and  French  wars:  "Opium  War," 
"  Arrow  War  "  ;  religious  liberty  in  the  treaties- 
Occupation  of  the  field— Massacres  ;  hostility  of 
mandarins  —  Anti-missionary  or  anti-foreign? 
Hunan  placards  — Methods  adopted;  literature 
and  schools  —  Medical  work  exceptionally  useful 
—  Evangelistic  work;  China  Inland  Mission — 
The  Native  Church;  "  rice  Christians  "  ;  simple 
organization  —  Missionary  conferences  —  For- 
mosa. 

VII 

Japan — Korea 191 

Rapid  changes— Roman  Catholic  missions; 
early  success  ;  persecution— The  dark  age;  for- 
eigners prohibited ;  Commodore  Perry  and  the 
treaties  —  Modern  missions;  occupation  of  the 
field — Missionary  problem  ;  anti-foreign  feeling; 
revival  of  Japanese  learning ;  restoration  of  the 
mikado  ;  general  national  characteristics  —  Period 
of  preparation  ;  education ;  Joseph  Neesima — 
Period  of  progress  ;  rapid  development — Period 
of  reaction ;  jealousy  of  foreign  influence ;  im- 
provement ;  revision  of  treaties— Native  Church ; 
problems  ;  independent  development ;  union — 
Missionaries  and  natives;  clashing  of  views  — 
Foreign  funds,  Japanese  desire  to  control — Jap- 
anese Christianity  ;  tendency  toward  liberalism  ; 
desire  for  a  distinct  creed  —  Evangelism;  more 
aggressive  Christian  life — Roman  Catholic  and 
Greek  missions  — Korea;  early  Roman  Catholic 
work;   persecution;  encouraging  opportunities. 

VIII 

The  Pacific 211 

Early  interest  in  the  South  Seas— Polynesia; 
London  Missionary  Society;  Tahiti— Results : 
revival;  French  occupation — New  Zealand;  Mel- 
anesian  mission  — Melanesia;  Wesleyan  Mis- 
sionary Society;  Fiji— New  Hebrides;  John 
Williams,  John  G.  Paton  — Melanesian  mission; 
New  Zealand  churches — Hawaiian  Islands;  spe- 
cial preparation  for  missions  ;  rapid  success — 
Withdrawal  of  the  mission  ;  development  of  hea- 


CONTENTS  9 

PAGE 

thenism;  influence  of  foreigners  — Micronesia; 
American  missionaries  ;  Hawaiian  evangelists — 
Methods  of  work  uniform  and  simple ;  foreign 
influence  largely  Lostile  to  missions. 


PART  III.  Organization  and  Methods 
OF  Mission  Work 


The  Object  and  Motive  of  Missions  .  ,  227 
Missions  a  distinctive  part  of  the  church  work 
—Diversity  of  view— Loyalty  to  Christ;  early 
Christians,witnesses— Development  of  character; 
necessity  of  influence  over  pagan  communities 
— Ambition  for  the  Church — Conquering  Chris- 
tianity; crusades;  sense  of  duty — The  saving  of 
men;  passion  for  souls — Education  of  a  native 
ministry — Native  Church;  basis  of  a  Christian 
community— Civilizing  influences— Higher  edu- 
cation—Impatience for  results ;  premillenarian- 
ism— Simple  evangelization;  rapid  extension- 
Prominent  factors. 

II 

Organization  of  Mission  Work  .  .  .  239 
Early  missions  little  organized;  no  definite 
plan— First  Protestant  societies  ;  simple  organi- 
zation ;  present  form ;  later  growth — Characteris- 
tics of  Protestant  societies — Scope  of  the  societies  ; 
supply  of  missionaries;  raising  funds — Form  of 
organization,  according  to  circumstances ;  China 
Inland  Mission— English  societies— Continental 
societies — American  societies — Ecclesiastical  re- 
lations to  supporting  churches — Other  organiza- 
tions :  Aid  and  Faith  societies ;  woman's  work ; 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association;  Student 
Volunteer  Movement. 

Ill 

Agencies  on  the  Field 251 

Character  of  missionaries — Ordination  of  mis- 
sionaries— Laymen — Women  as  missionaries  — 


lO  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Unmarried  missionaries,  men  or  women— Im- 
portant aids— Equipment  of  missionaries  ;  salaries 
— Manner  of  life;  adaptation  to  the  country; 
furloughs  — Missions ;  distinct  organization  on 
the  field;  mission  stations;  comity— Native 
helpers  :  evangelists,  teachers,  translators  ;  high 
character — Aids  to  missions  ;  commerce ;  diplo- 
matic service — Diplomatic  relations. 

IV 

Methods— Evangelization— Zenana  and  Medi- 
cal Work 265 

Three  classes  of  people :  interested,  hostile, 
indifferent — Giving  the  message;  sin  and  salva- 
tion; simple  gospel— Preliminary  qualifications: 
knowledge  of  language,  of  habits  of  thought — 
Personal  conversation — Preaching,  simple  rather 
than  controversial — Relation  to  native  customs, 
recognizing  the  good— Traveling — Bible  and 
tract  distribution— Zenana  work ;  house-to-house 
preaching  and  education— Medical  work. 


Education  —  Bible     Translation  —  Christian 

Literature 277 

Development  of  Christian  character — Educa- 
tion ;  explanation  of  the  gospel ;  illiteracy  of 
mission  lands — Instruction ;  schools  for  children, 
for  helpers,  for  general  diffusion  of  information 
— Secular  education  essential  to  comprehension 
of  Christianity— Missionary  colleges — Boarding- 
and  day-schools — Theological  instruction  ;  the 
native  ministry  —  Girls'  schools  —  Industrial 
schools— General  results :  intellectual  power, 
broad  sympathy,  strength  against  temptation — 
Bible  translation  and  distribution ;  difficulties — 
Free  distribution  seldom  employed— Christian 
literature. 

VI 

Church     Formation  —  Self-support  —  Social 

Development 292 

Organization  of  the  Native  Church— Native 


CONTENTS  I I 

PAGE 

Church,  independent,  self-directing,  self-propa- 
gating; early  churches;  development  along  na- 
tional lines— Peculiar  needs  ;  holding  its  own  in 
the  community ;  preaching  to  the  poor — Form  of 
organization,  simple ;  connection  with  denomina- 
tions—Missionaries and  the  church;  resident 
counselors— Doctrinal  basis;  influence  of  the 
Holy  Spirit— Self-support  essential  to  responsi- 
bility and  healthy  development;  difficulties  in 
different  fields— Foreign  assistance ;  arose  largely 
through  poverty  of  the  people ;  misunderstandings 
—  Return  to  primitive  methods  ;  John  L.  Nevius 
—Social  developments ;  relation  of  the  church  to 
the  community. 

Appendix  A.  List  of  Societies  •  ,  .  307 
Appendix  B.  Bibliography  ....  313 
Index ,  319 


PART  I 
GENERAL  HISTORY 


APOSTOLIC   AND    MEDIEVAL    MISSIONS 

The  missionary  activity  of  the  Apostolic 
Church,  describing  by  that  term  the  Church  of 
the  first  century,  has  left  few  records  that  are 
thoroughly  rehable  beyond  the  chronicles  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  occasional  references 
in  the  Epistles.  To  all  appearance,  with  the 
exception  of  the  apostles  Paul,  Peter,  and  John, 
and  Barnabas,  Silas,  Timothy,  Mark,  Philip,  and 
a  few  others,  the  apostohc  company  and  the 
great  majority  of  the  disciples  had  little  or  no 
active  share  in  the  extension  of  the  Church. 
This,  however,  is  probably  very  incorrect.  Luke 
tells  us  that  "they  that  were  scattered  abroad 
went  everywhere  preaching  the  Word  " ;  and  a 
conception  of  what  "  everywhere "  meant  is 
gained  from  the  list  of  places  represented  at 
Jerusalem  at  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  and  from 
Peter's  great  sermon.  Persia,  Mesopotamia,  and 
Arabia,  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  Italy,  Egypt  and 
North  Africa,  each  received  these  messengers  of 
the  new  faith.  It  is  by  no  means  necessary  to 
suppose  that  the  first  Pentecost  was  the  only  one 
where  the  seeds  were  sown  which  afterward 
sprang  up  in  far-distant  countries. 
15 


1 6  GENERAL    HISTORY 

Individual  Effort.— In  the  picturesqueness 
of  Paul's  journeys,  and  the  special  interest  that 
attaches  to  Peter  and  John,  there  is  danger  of 
forgetting  the  service  rendered  by  these  unnamed 
believers,  who,  bearing  no  special  commission, 
organizing  comparatively  few  churches,  yet  car- 
ried far  and  wide  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel 
and  prepared  the  soil  which  was  cultivated  to 
such  advantage  in  the  succeeding  centuries. 
These  doubtless  received  their  impulse  as  well  as 
their  instruction  largely  from  the  community  at 
Rome,  and  thus  the  share  of  Matthew  and 
Nathaniel  may  well  have  been  as  important,  if 
not  as  conspicuous,  as  that  of  James  and  John. 
Could  we  learn  more  fully  the  facts  of  that  apos- 
tolic age  we  should  undoubtedly  find  that  it  led 
all  the  succeeding  ages  in  the  vigor  of  its  individ- 
ual effort.  It  was  not  a  time  of  great  leaders, 
but  of  many  leaders.  There  was  no  widely  ex- 
tended organization,  in  which  individuals  became 
little  more  than  the  cogs  that  regulate  the  motion  ; 
there  was  scarcely  even  a  church  as  we  under- 
stand the  term.  There  was  simply  a  constantly 
increasing  number  of  individual  Christian  be- 
lievers, who,  wherever  they  went,  whether  on 
their  regular  business  or  driven  by  persecution, 
preached  Christ,  and  Him  crucified,  told  the  story 
of  the  cross,  bore  witness  to  its  value  for  them- 
selves, and  urged  the  acceptance  of  the  Saviour 
on  those  with  whom  they  came  in  contact.  Of 
missionaries  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term 
there  were  few ;  of  those  who  devoted  their  full 
time  and  strength  to  the  work  of  preaching  there 
were  few;  but  of  those  who  made  their  trade, 
their  profession,  their  every-day  occupation,  of 
whatever  sort,  the  means  of  extending  their  faith, 
there  was  a  multitude. 


APOSTOLIC   AND    MEDIEVAL   MISSIONS        17 

Consolidation.  — Following  the  apostolic 
period  for  two  centuries  the  Church  grew  even 
more  rapidly.  It  also  became  consolidated  and 
organized.  It  was  no  longer  composed  of  scat- 
tered companies  of  believers,  but  of  communities 
holding  a  definite  position  in  face  of  the  pagan 
world.  It  asserted  its  right  to  exist,  and,  more, 
to  overthrow  the  systems  of  thoughts  and  of  be- 
lief that  for  centuries  had  maintained  undisputed 
sway.  It  had  its  leaders,  the  great  church  fathers, 
Justin  Martyr,  Irenseus,  Origen,  TertuUian,  the 
Clements,  who  defended  its  faith  and  directed 
its  energies.  Its  distinctively  missionary  work, 
however,  was  in  the  main  carried  on  by  the  same 
means  as  in  the  first  century.  Paul  had  no  suc- 
cessor in  his  great  journeys.  Irenaeus  from  Lyons, 
TertuUian  in  Carthage,  Polycarp  at  Smyrna,  were 
great  in  inspiring  men  by  word  and  by  example, 
but  they  were  not  pioneers.  Pioneering  was  still 
the  province  of  the  lesser-known,  the  more  hum- 
ble believers,  who  were  not  so  much  missionaries 
as  every-day  Christian  tradesmen,  travelers,  work- 
men, whose  lives  even  more  than  their  teachings 
were  the  instruments  chosen  of  God  for  the 
evangelizing  of  the  remoter  sections  of  the 
world.  Persecution  also  had  its  share,  and  just 
as  Paul  went  to  establish  the  churches  founded 
by  those  who  were  driven  from  their  homes  after 
the  death  of  Stephen,  so  many  of  the  bishops  of 
these  centuries  were  ordained  over  communities 
that  owed  their  origin  to  the  hostility  of  the 
Roman  emperors.  Always  and  everywhere  the 
blood  of  the  martyrs  was  the  seed  of  the  Church. 
These  later  evangelists,  however,  had  an  advan- 
tage over  their  predecessors  in  that  the  use  of 
translations  of  the  Scriptures  became  more  com- 
mon.    There  were  the  Peshito  and  Curetonian 


I  8  GENERAL    HISTORY 

Syriac  versions  for  Syria  and  Mesopotamia ;  the 
Memphitic,  Thebaic,  and  Bashmuric  for  Egypt 
and  the  upper  Nile  valley;  the  North  African 
and  Italian-Latin  version  for  Carthage  and  Rome  ; 
while  the  Greek  went  everywhere.  Still,  as  in 
/  the  apostolic  days,  the  great  work  was  in  the 
cities.  This  was  undoubtedly  due  largely  to  the 
means  by  which  the  new  religion  was  extended. 
Merchants,  tradesmen,  artisans,  naturally  gathered 
in  the  centers  of  population  for  their  business, 
and  the  facility  of  mutual  communication  with 
one  another  and  the  attendant  encouragement 
and  support  made  it  natural  for  Rome,  Athens, 
Smyrna,  Alexandria,  Carthage,  Lyons,  Vienne, 
to  become  the  strongholds  of  Christian  worship. 
One  of  these,  Alexandria,  became  noted  for  its 
missionary  college,  or  catechumen's  school,  from 
which,  under  the  instruction  of  Pantaenus,  teach- 
ers were  sent  forth  to  Africa,  Europe,  and  Asia. 
Extension. — The  presence  in  the  Church  of 
men  of  literary  attainments,  not  less  than  the  in- 
creasing attention  paid  to  its  development,  has 
made  possible  a  record  of  the  advance  in  mis- 
sionary extension.  Eastward  from  Jerusalem 
Christianity  extended  across  Mesopotamia  and 
the  mountains  into  Persia,  Media,  and  Parthia, 
and  even  into  Bactria.  At  Edessa,  the  modern 
Urfa  (long,  though  mistakenly,  known  as  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees), — made  memorable  in  recent  times 
by  a  massacre  exceeding  even  those  of  the  Dio- 
cletian era,  and  by  the  heroism  of  a  missionary 
woman  from  beyond  the  Atlantic, — so  strong 
was  the  Christian  community  in  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  that  it  included  the  king 
Abgar,  claimed  by  the  Armenians  as  their  first 
leader  in  the  faith.  Even  as  far  as  India  the 
movement  spread.     Though  St.  Thomas  never 


APOSTOLIC    AND    MEDIEVAL    MISSIONS  I9 

went  to  Malabar,  a  Christian  teacher  from  Alex- 
andria visited  the  country  about  190  a.d.,  and 
just  after  the  close  of  this  period,  about  350 
flourishing  churches  were  in  existence  there.  It 
was  natural  that  Christianity  should  gain  a  strong 
foothold  in  Egypt  and  extend  up  the  Nile  even 
to  Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  and  as  early  as  235 
twenty  bishops  from  the  Nile  valley  were  present 
at  a  council  in  Alexandria.  North  Africa  was 
very  early  a  promising  field.  The  maritime 
achievements  of  the  Phenicians  kept  it  in  close 
touch  with  Italy  and  the  East.  Commerce  was 
then  almost  more  even  than  to-day  the  handmaid 
of  the  gospel,  and  Carthage  had  its  church,  with 
Tertullian  at  its  head,  at  the  close  of  the  second 
century.  From  Rome  north  through  Italy  into 
Gaul,  the  Christians  spread,  gatherirg  large  com- 
munities and  founding  churches  in  Lyons,  Vienne, 
and  Paris.  Some  crossed  the  Rhine  and  found 
fellow-believers  among  the  Germans,  and  some 
went  even  to  B  itain,  all  by  the  middle  or  end 
of  the  second  century.  In  Spain  so  great  was 
the  advance  that  in  306  there  were  nineteen 
bishops  assembled  at  Elvira.  There  was  perhaps 
something  of  pride,  but  of  pride  well  founded 
in  fact,  in  TertuUian's  address  to  the  heathen, 
about  200 : 

"  We  are  but  of  yesterday,  and  yet  we  already 
fill  your  cities,  islands,  camps,  your  palace,  senate, 
and  forum  ;  we  have  left  you  only  your  temples." 

So  Justin  Martyr,  half  a  century  earlier,  had 
said: 

"There  is  no  people,  Greek  or  barbarian  or 
of  any  other  race,  by  whatsoever  appellation  or 
manners  they  may  be  distinguished,  however 
ignorant  of  arts  or  agriculture,  whether  they  dwell 
in  tents  or  wander  about  in  covered  wagons, 


10  GENERAL    HISTORY 

among  whom  prayers  and  thanksgiving  are  not 
offered,  in  the  name  of  the  crucified  Jesus,  to 
the  Father  and  Creator  of  all  things." 

As  to  the  actual  numbers  of  the  Christians  at 
the  close  of  the  second  century,  any  accurate 
statement  is,  of  course,  impossible.  AH  sorts  of 
estimates  are  made  as  to  the  proportion  held  by 
them  out  of  the  whole  population  of  the  empire. 
Some,  including  Dr.  Schaff,  claim  from  one  tenth 
to  one  twelfth  of  the  whole,  while  others  limit  it 
to  one  twentieth. 

Organization.— The  next  period  (312-590), 
from  the  edict  of  toleration  by  Constantine  to  the 
time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  is  the  period  of  the 
establishment  of  Christianity  as  the  religion  of 
the  empire,  of  the  great  church  councils,  and  of 
the  organization  and  cOtisolidation  of  the  Church. 
It  was  not  a  period  of  great  missionary  activity. 
The  energies  of  Christianity  were  spent  chiefly 
in  efforts  to  assimilate  the  great  mass  of  heathen- 
ism that,  when  Constantine  made  it  the  dominant 
faith,  accepted  its  forms  without  entering  into  its 
spirit.  In  this  effort  the  Church  suffered  severely. 
On  the  one  hand  there  was  danger  from  the  laxity 
due  to  the  infusion  of  alien  material,  on  the  other 
from  austerity  due  to  a  desire  to  preserve  the 
original  simplicity  and  vigor  of  the  faith.  Mag- 
nificent churches,  a  gorgeous  ritual,  were  bal- 
anced by  the  monasticism  of  the  Thebaid.  So, 
also,  the  intensity  of  the  theological  discussions 
centering  about  Arius,  Nestorius,  Pelagius  served 
to  make  the  present  need  of  the  Church  over- 
balance the  need  of  the  outside  heathen  world. 
The  missionary  spirit  was,  however,  by  no  means 
dead,  and  it  had  need  of  all  its  energy.  Hitherto 
it  had  spread  largely  under  the  protection  of  the 
Roman  empire.      Even  though  persecuted  by 


APOSTOLIC   AND    MEDIEVAL   MISSIONS         21 

Roman  emperors,  it  found  a  measure  of  safety 
in  Gaul,  Britain,  Spain,  Africa,  whose  people 
were  hardly  barbarians  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
word  became  known  to  the  weaker  successors  of 
the  Caesars.  When  the  Goths  and  Vandals  came 
pouring  down  from  the  unknown  North,  they 
presented  to  the  Church  a  need  such  as  it  had 
not  realized  before.  In  their  incursions  into 
Cappadocia  the  Goths  carried  away  many  cap- 
tives who  bore  with  them  their  Christian  belief. 
A  descendant  of  one  of  them  was  Ulfilas,  who 
became  the  apostle  of  the  Goths,  and  had  signal 
success  among  them,  being  made  bishop  in  348. 
He  anticipated  the  labor  of  modern  mission- 
aries in  inventing  for  his  converts  an  alphabet, 
that  they  might  read  his  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  left  behind  him  such  a  memory  that 
when,  some  years  after  his  death,  Alaric  sacked 
Rome,  all  the  Christians  were  removed  to  a  place 
of  safety  and  the  churches  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul  were  protected  from  pillage.  His  work 
was  assisted  by  the  students  from  another  mis- 
sionary college  at  Constantinople,  established  by 
Chrysostom. 

New  Problems.— The  most  serious  problem 
the  Church  had  to  face  in  this  period  was  the 
incursion  of  the  successive  hordes  of  East  Goths, 
Vandals,  and  Huns,  as  they  swarmed  over  the 
mountains  of  central  Europe  into  the  plains  of 
Italy  and  Spain,  and  crossed  the  Mediterranean 
into  North  Africa.  The  work  of  Leo  I.  of  Rome 
and  his  associates  in  preserving  the  integrity  of 
the  faith  and  in  proclaiming  the  truth  of  Christ 
to  these  wild  men  of  the  North  was  as  truly  mis- 
sionary as  that  among  the  Chinese  in  the  cities 
of  America  to-day.  It  was  not  always  peaceably 
done,  St.  Martin  of  Tours  leading  the  way  in  the 


2  2  GENERAL    HISTORY 

militant  Christianity  of  later  centuries.  It  re- 
sulted in  the  conversion  of  Clovis  (496)  and  the 
opening  of  a  wider  door  to  the  Christianizing  of 
the  Franks,  in  which  valuable  assistance  was 
given  by  another  missionary  school,  founded  by 
Honoratus  on  a  Mediterranean  island  off  the 
coast  of  France  (429).  At  the  same  time  St. 
Patrick  was  at  work  in  Ireland,  and  Columba 
was  founding  the  famous  church  at  lona  from 
which  went  the  influences  that  brought  Scots  and 
Picts  into  the  Christian  family. 

Turning  eastward,  the  Greek  Church  was  fight- 
ing against  a  revival  of  paganism  under  Julian 
the  Apostate,  and  had  httle  time  or  thought  for 
regions  beyond.  Gregory  the  Illuminator,  how- 
ever, crystalHzed  the  influences  that  had  been  at 
work  among  the  Armenians,  and  they  first  as  a 
nation  accepted  the  new  faith  early  in  the  fourth 
century.  Somewhat  later  the  Nestorians  devel- 
oped their  strength  under  the  furious  persecution 
of  Persian  Zoroastrianism,  and  sent  their  mis- 
sionaries through  central  Asia  to  China.  Farther 
south  Cosmas  Indicopleustes  found  at  the  close 
of  the  period  churches  in  Ceylon,  on  the  Malabar 
coast,  and  at  Calcutta. 

The  Dark  Ages.  — From  590  to  1073  was 
the  period  usually  referred  to  as  the  dark  ages, 
when  there  was  the  least  of  progress,  when  the 
Church  was  weakest  an"d  most  corrupt.  Yet, 
from  the  missionary  standpoint,  it  was  one  of 
considerable  advance.  Following  the  lead  of 
Columba,  Columban  and  Gallus  represented  the 
Irish  Church  in  Gaul  and  Switzerland,  while  Au- 
gustine did  the  work  for  the  fair-haired  Saxons, 
which  Gregory  had  intended  for  himself  until  he 
was  called,  against  his  will,  to  the  papal  chair, 
and  set  in  train  the  influences  to  which  were  due 


APOSTOLIC   AND    MEDIEVAL    MISSIONS         23 

the  labors  of  Hilda,  founder  of  the  monastery  of 
Whitby,  another  missionary  school.  The  preach- 
ing of  Willibrord,  a  monk  of  Northumbria,  among 
the  Friesians  aroused  Boniface,  the  missionary 
to  Hesse  and  Saxony,  and  the  leader  of  many 
less-known  laborers  among  the  Germans.  An 
ardent  ecclesiast,  he  was  also  a  profound  believer 
in  education,  and  the  schools  founded  by  him 
and  his  pupils  in  connection  with  the  monasteries 
had  a  most  powerful  influence  upon  the  people. 
Germany  and  England  were  the  stepping-stones 
to  the  kindred  nations  north  and  east.  Ansgar 
(840),  a  monk  of  Corvey,  under  the  influence  of 
Louis  the  Pious,  preached  in  Denmark  and 
Sweden,  giving  his  most  earnest  labors  to  the 
Danes ;  but  it  was  not  until  two  centuries  later 
that  Denmark,  under  Canute,  became  thoroughly 
Christianized.  Sweden  and  Norway  followed, 
and  with  them  Greenland  and  Iceland  received 
their  first  knowledge  of  the  gospel  from  the  dis- 
ciples of  Ansgar. 

The  Slavs.— The  next  great  conquest  of 
Christianity  was  over  the  Slavs,  who  had  begun 
to  show  their  power  and  give  evidence  of  the 
ambitions  of  later  years.  A  Bulgarian  prince, 
baptized  through  the  influence  of  his  sister,  who 
had  learned  Christianity  as  a  captive,  besought 
teachers,  as  had  the  Goths  five  centuries  before ; 
and  Cyril  and  Methodius,  answering  the  call, 
did  for  the  Slavs  what  Ulfilas  had  done  for  their 
predecessors  in  the  rule  of  southeastern  Europe, 
not  only  in  preaching  the  gospel,  but  in  furnish- 
ing the  basis  of  rehgious  growth  in  an  organized 
language  and  a  version  of  the  Bible  still  known 
and  loved.  Another  century,  and  the  Russian 
Vladimir,  influenced  again  by  a  princess,  sent  to 
Constantinople  for  missionaries,  and  in  988,  with 


24  GENERAL    HISTORY 

his  twelve  sons,  was  baptized  at  Kieff,  and  the 
whole  nation  followed,  being  immersed  in  the 
Dnieper. 

Missions  in  Asia.— The  conversion  of  Rus- 
sia marked  the  completion,  or  at  least  the  close, 
of  aggressive  missions  in  Europe.  From  the  tenth 
century  the  attention  of  the  Church  was  directed 
to  Asia  chiefly,  though  also  in  a  degree  to  Africa. 
Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  exten- 
sion of  the  Nestorian  Church.  This  attracted 
little  notice  in  Europe  until  marvelous  stories 
began  to  come  of  converts  among  the  Mongols. 
One  prince  reported  to  have  accepted  Chris- 
tianity became,  as  Prester  John,  the  object  of  so 
many  tales  that  his  very  existence  has  been 
doubted.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  Kublai 
Khan,  grandson  of  the  famous  Genghis  Khan, 
and  ruler  of  the  Eastern  Mongol  Empire,  was 
anxious  to  learn  of  Christianity,  and  would  have 
welcomed  to  his  court  at  Peking  the  friars  who 
started  in  response  to  the  message  through  the 
father  and  uncle  of  Marco  Polo,  but  had  not  the 
courage  to  complete  the  journey.  Still  Chris- 
tianity flourished  in  the  far  East,  and  was  strength- 
ened by  the  labors  of  John  de  Monte  Corvino  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  This  Franciscan  monk 
sought  to  undo  the  theological  harm  of  Nestorian 
doctrine,  and  thus  incurred  their  enmity,  so  that 
much  of  the  good  of  his  preaching  and  teaching 
was  neutralized.  The  fall  of  the  Mongol  dynasty 
half  a  century  later  crushed  out  what  of  Chris- 
tianity there  was,  and  ended  the  missionary  ac- 
tivity of  the  Eastern  Church  until  Russia  took  up 
the  cause  in  the  present  century  and  established 
its  representatives  in  Japan. 

Contest  with  Islam.— The  record  of  the 
next  four  and  a  half  centuries  (1073-15 17)  is 


APOSTOLIC   AND    MEDIEVAL    MISSIONS        25 

one  almost  devoid  of  missionary  enterprise.  The 
Eastern  Church,  except  for  the  waning  efforts  of 
the  Nestorians  in  central  and  eastern  Asia,  was 
too  much  occupied  with  the  effort  to  hold  its 
own  against  the  tide  of  Mohammedanism  to  think 
of  much  else.  The  Western  Church,  content 
with  having  accompHshed  the  evangelization  of 
Europe,  was  occupied  with  itself  until  it,  too, 
found  that  it  must  face  the  common  enemy. 
There  was  a  distinctly  missionary  spirit  in  the 
monastic  orders,  although  their  chief  aim  had 
been  the  development  of  a  devotional  type  of 
piety,  illustrated  particularly  by  the  way  in  which 
Francis  of  Assisi  forced  his  way  to  the  presence 
of  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  and  preached  Christianity 
in  his  court.  The  same  thing  appeared,  in  a 
degree,  even  in  the  rush  and  turmoil  of  the  cru- 
sades. The  madly  enthusiastic  followers  of  Peter 
the  Hermit,  and  the  cooler-headed  under  God- 
frey de  Bouillon,  were  actuated  in  a  considerable 
degree  by  the  desire  to  see  Islam  overcome  by 
Christianity,  not  merely  the  wish  to  rescue  the 
Holy  Sepulcher  from  the  hands  of  the  Moslem. 
It  was,  however,  a  very  militant  kind  of  mission- 
aryism — mistaken,  no  doubt,  but  still  real. 

Raymond  Lull. — There  was,  however,  one 
genuine  missionary  whose  efforts,  if  not  his 
achievements,  place  him  in  the  front  rank  of 
laborers  for  the  spiritual  extension  of  the  faith. 
Raymond  Lull,  after  the  crusades  had  proved 
futile,  inaugurated  the  gospel  method  of  conquer- 
ing the  false  faith.  The  hfe  of  the  converted 
Spanish  noble  reads  like  a  romance  of  modern 
missions.  He  tried  to  establish  institutions  in 
which  priests  might  study  various  languages  and 
fit  themselves  for  mission  work,  applying  to  the 
King  of  Majorca,  his  home,  to  the  pope,  to  the 


2  6  GENERAL    HISTORY 

Council  of  Vienne,  to  England.  Failing  to  rouse 
the  Church,  he  went  himself  to  Tunis,  challenged 
the  Moslem  doctors,  then  visited  Cyprus  and 
Asiatic  Turkey.  Again  he  visited  Africa,  only 
to  be  thrown  into  prison,  though  the  Moslems 
spared  his  life  in  honor  of  his  magnificent  courage. 
Released,  he  returned  again  to  the  contest,  and 
this  time  to  sacrifice  his  life.  His  WTitings  on 
missions,  his  methods  suggested  for  the  conver- 
sion of  the  world,  especially  the  Moslem  world, 
were  long  unnoticed,  and  it  is  only  of  late  years 
that  he  has  been  awarded  a  place  in  missions, 
though  always  honored  as  a  scholar  and  a  scien- 
tist in  the  science  of  that  time.  He  is  the  one 
connecting-link  in  missions  between  the  apostles 
of  northern  Europe  and  the  leaders  who,  follow- 
ing the  Reformation,  carried  the  gospel  to  every 
part  of  the  rapidly  increasing  world. 

R^sum^. — Certain  facts  stand  out  very  prom- 
inently in  a  survey  of  these  fifteen  centuries, 
(i)  After  the  first  three  centuries  the  Church  as 
a  whole  ceased  to  have  any  special  interest  in 
missions.  Whatever  was  done,  even  during  the 
period  when  the  great  nations  of  the  North  were 
converted,  was  done  chiefly  by  individuals,  under 
the  impulse  of  a  sense  of  personal  responsibility. 
The  great  mass  of  Christians,  so  far  as  appears, 
knew  nothing  of  what  was  being  done  and  had 
no  share  in  it.  The  popular  movement  that  char- 
acterized the  apostolic  and  ante-Nicene  period 
ceased  with  the  proclamation  of  Christianity  as  the 
rehgion  of  the  Roman  empire.  (2)  The  later 
work  of  missions  was  largely  national ;  whole 
communities,  and  even  races,  were  brought  into 
the  Church  en  masse.  The  efforts  of  the  mis- 
sionaries were  largely  directed  to  the  conversion 
of  the  leaders,  kings,  nobles,  etc.,  who  then  pro- 


APOSTOLIC   AND    MEDIEVAL    MISSIONS         27 

claimed  Christianity  as  their  faith  and  practically 
enforced  its  acceptance.  (3)  The  vigor  and  per- 
manence of  the  work  was  in  direct  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  stress  laid  upon  the  education  and 
training  of  the  converts.  The  Eastern  Church 
was  uneducated,  and  its  missions  had  no  staying 
quality.  In  the  AVest,  England  and  Germany 
received  the  foundations  of  their  spiritual  life 
from  the  schools  established  by  Columba  and 
Boniface.  (4)  There  was  throughout  a  stern, 
uncompromising  hostility  to  the  false  systems  of 
rehgion  on  the  part  of  the  missionaries,  often  at- 
tended by  instances  of  the  most  heroic  devotion. 
No  annals  of  the  Church  in  any  age  furnish 
grander  examples  than  the  records  of  the  con- 
quest of  the  nations  of  the  North.  (5)  In  spite 
of  education  and  the  effect  of  the  high  character 
and  pure  teaching  of  the  missionaries,  the  con- 
verted communities  and  nations  reflected  to  a 
considerable  degree  the  character  of  the  Church 
where  it  had  been  longest  estabhshed.  Rome 
made  herself  felt  everywhere,  and  the  evils  of 
the  papacy  neutralized  to  a  very  marked  degree 
the  good  accomplished  by  its  messengers. 


II 

ROMAN    CATHOLIC    MISSIONS 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation  the  mission 
work  of  the  Christian  Church  was  undivided; 
whether  they  labored  in  Asia  or  Europe,  the 
missionaries  carried  one  gospel  not  merely  in 
substance,  but  in  form.  The  single  exception  of 
the  conflict  in  China  between  the  Nestorians  and 
the  Franciscan  John  de  Monte  Corvino  only  serves 
to  emphasize  this  general  unity.  The  Reforma- 
tion made  a  break,  and  since  then  foreign  mis- 
sions have  been  carried  on  by  two  very  different, 
and  not  seldom  antagonistic,  forces — Roman 
Catholicism  and  Protestantism.  Because  of  the 
results  of  Roman  Catholic  missions  in  some 
countries,  notably  the  Spanish- American  colonies, 
and  the  grievous  scandal  in  India,  there  have 
been  not  a  few  to  deny  that  Roman  Catholic 
missions  have  done  any  real  good ;  and  the  re- 
peated use  by  some  of  the  missionaries  of  any 
means  to  secure  their  ends  has  greatly  discred- 
ited the  work  of  all.  This  is  not  the  place  to 
discuss  the  rival  merits  of  the  two  systems.  It 
is  sufficient  to  say  that,  just  as  Protestants  use 
and  rejoice  in  the  hymns  of  Roman  Catholic 
devotion,  so  the  records  of  Roman  Catholic 
missions  contain  very  much  of  inspiration  for 
28 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC    MISSIONS  29 

them,  and  in  not  a  few  cases  of  helpful  sug- 
gestion. 

Maritime  Discoveries.— From  the  time  of 
Raymond  Lull  for  nearly  two  centuries  there 
was  little  or  no  mission  enterprise  of  any  kind. 
In  the  East,  Islam  had  overborne  Christianity 
so  completely  that  scarcely  more  than  the  form 
remained.  In  central  Europe,  popes,  emperors, 
and  kings  were  so  engrossed  with  political  am- 
bitions that  there  was  httle  inchnation  and  less 
time  for  aggressive  Christianity.  In  southwestern 
Europe  alone  did  there  seem  to  be  any  special 
interest  in  the  extension  of  the  Church.  This 
was  due  in  considerable  measure  to  two  things. 
The  victory  of  Islam  was  by  no  means  complete, 
and  the  Saracens  had  succeeded  less  there  than 
anywhere  else  in  repressing  Christian  activity, 
while  the  constant  conflict  with  them  served  to 
keep  up  that  activity.  More  potent,  however, 
than  this  were  the  great  maritime  discoveries  of 
the  age.  Little  by  little  the  Spaniards  and  Por- 
tuguese felt  their  way  along  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  and  with  the  sailors  went  the  priests. 
Then,  almost  at  once,  came  the  discovery  of  the 
New  World  in  the  West,  and  the  new  route  to 
India  in  the  East,  opening  up  almost  limitless 
colonies  to  the  Church  as  well  as  to  the  merchants. 
For  a  time,  however,  the  explorers  left  little  for 
the  missionaries  to  do.  Then  came  the  Refor- 
mation, and  a  great  stirring  of  the  religious  life 
in  the  Catholic  as  well  as  the  protesting  churches. 

Jesuits  and  Other  Orders.— The  first  in- 
dication, or,  perhaps  better,  the  first  prominent 
expression,  of  the  new  spirit  was  the  founding  of 
several  new  orders,  chief  among  them  the  Jesuits, 
Capuchins,  and  Dominicans,  and  somewhat  later 
the  Lazarists.     These  were  all  distinctively  mis- 


30  GENERAL    HISTORY 

sionary  orders,  whose  specific  object  was  the  ex- 
tension of  the  Church  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  it  has  been  chiefly  through  them  that  Roman 
Cathohc  missions  have  been  carried  on  for  the 
past  four  centuries.  Among  them  the  primacy 
belongs  to  the  Jesuits,  led  by  Francis  Xavier,  with 
Loyola,  the  founder  of  the  order.  Notwithstand- 
ing bitter  ecclesiastical  hostility,  the  order  rapidly 
strengthened  its  position.  Its  members  took 
upon  themselves  monastic  vows,  but  allowed  no 
monastic  rules  to  interfere  with  the  carrying  out 
of  their  great  object.  At  first  their  intention 
appears  to  have  been  to  locate  at  Jerusalem  and 
labor  for  the  conversion  of  the  Saracens ;  but 
soon  their  purpose  broadened  to  take  in  the 
Church  at  home  as  well  as  the  heathen  world 
abroad.  Each  member  was  bound  to  render 
instant,  absolute  obedience  to  his  superior,  no 
matter  what  was  involved,  whether  he  was  to  go 
to  the  farthest  corner  of  the  world  or  remain  and 
instruct  youth  in  the  capitals  and  courts  of 
Europe. 

Francis  Xavier.— While  Loyola  remained 
in  Europe  to  direct  the  order  in  its  general  work, 
Xavier,  his  associate  as  well  as  disciple,  com- 
menced the  great  foreign  missionary  work  of  the 
order,  and  gave  the  impulse  which  was  caught 
up  by  numerous  successors,  until  the  record  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  so  far  at  least  as  the  ex- 
tension of  the  Church  went,  is  one  of  the  most 
wonderful  in  its  history.  In  1542,  about  thirty 
years  after  the  capture  of  Goa  by  the  Portuguese, 
the  King  of  Portugal  applied  to  Loyola  for  a 
missionary  to  go  to  the  new  settlements  on  the 
Malabar  coast.  Xavier  received  from  the  pope 
the  appointment  as  apostolic  nuncio  for  India, 
and  commenced  his  work  among  the  Christian 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC    MISSIONS  3 1 

settlements,  extending  them  to  the  surrounding 
heathen  communities  along  the  coast,  both  west 
and  east.  Wherever  he  went  his  influence  was 
marvelous,  and  although  he  seems  never  to  have 
learned  the  languages  of  the  countries  where 
he  labored  so  as  to  be  independent  of  an  inter- 
preter, he  won  converts  by  the  thousands.  For 
three  years  he  worked  in  South  India,  chiefly 
among  the  lower  castes,  and  then  went  to  the 
Chinese  Archipelago,  Malacca,  the  Moluccas,  and 
other  islands.  In  1549  he  went  to  Japan,  where 
he  labored  for  two  years  with  marked  success. 
It  was  his  earnest  desire  to  enter  China,  but  he 
did  not  succeed,  and  died  in  1552,  ten  years  after 
his  arrival  at  Goa. 

Xavier's  Successors. — The  work  inaugu- 
rated by  Xavier  was  carried  on  with  considerable 
success  for  about  fifty  years.  Then  Robert 
Nobili,  and  some  associates,  including  De  Brito, 
one  of  the  most  learned  of  the  Jesuits,  dissatis- 
fied with  conversions  among  the  poorer  people, 
sought  to  reach  the  Brahmins,  and  instituted  a 
series  of  accommodations  to  heathen  customs 
which  was  carried  on  for  a  century  and  a  half 
in  India  and  China,  and  created  such  scandal  as 
to  call  forth  the  repeated  condemnation  of  the 
popes,  and  at  last  resulted  in  the  suppression  of 
the  order.  Believing  their  foreign  origin  to  be 
a  serious  hindrance  to  influence  with  the  Brah- 
mins in  India  and  the  mandarins  in  China,  they 
sought  to  conceal  that  as  much  as  possible. 
They  not  only  dressed  in  the  native  costume,  but 
adopted  many  of  the  native  habits,  even  joining 
in  idolatrous  worship.  The  truth  of  these  state- 
ments has  been  vehemently  denied  by  the  Jesuits, 
but  rests  on  too  strong  evidence  to  admit  of 
doubt. 


32  GENERAL    HISTORY 

Results  in  Asia.— Judged  by  numbers,  the 
success  of  these  missions  in  the  East  was  mar- 
velous. The  converts  were  among  the  hundreds 
of  thousands.  It  is  unquestionable,  also,  that 
there  was  very  much  of  spiritual  life  among  the 
converts,  which  not  even  the  evils  referred  to 
above  could  entirely  neutralize.  The  constancy 
manifested  by  them  even  in  the  face  of  bitter 
persecution  is  not  in  itself  a  sure  proof,  for  the 
wildest  of  vagaries  will  secure  the  ardent  devotion 
of  multitudes ;  but  there  was  in  these  instances 
manifest  much  of  true  Christian  fortitude.  More 
important  still  is  the  fact  that  the  work  held  on 
so  long,  and  that  even  after  some  centuries  traces 
were  found  of  the  communities.  The  great  de- 
fect of  these  missions  was  that  the  acceptance 
of  the  signs  and  symbols  of  Christianity  was  not 
followed  up  by  such  education  as  would  enable 
Christian  character  to  grow.  Each  successive 
generation  accepted  what  it  was  taught  by  the 
priests,  who  failed  in  most  cases  to  imitate  the 
great  leaders  of  medieval  missions,  who  sought 
everywhere  to  found  schools,  that  the  people 
might  learn  for  themselves.  It  is  signifi- 
cant, too,  that,  notwithstanding  the  great  scholar- 
ship of  many  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  of  that 
day,  no  contributions  were  made  to  Bible  trans- 
lation. When,  two  and  a  half  centuries  later, 
Protestant  missionaries  went  into  those  same 
fields,  they  found  themselves  without  the  slightest 
basis  for  work  in  the  form  of  existing  versions  of 
the  Scriptures. 

Africa.— While  Xavier'swork  in  Asia  has  held, 
for  the  most  part,  the  most  important  place  in 
the  public  eye,  so  far  as  missions  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  are  concerned,  it  was  by  no 
means  the  sole,  or  on  the  whole  the  most  success- 


ROMAN   CATHOLIC   MISSIONS  33 

ful,  effort  of  that  Church.  Some  years  before  he 
went  to  Goa,  Dominican  missionaries  were  gath- 
ering thousands  of  converts  on  the  west  shore  of 
Africa.  The  selfish  plans  of  the  Portuguese 
traders  neutrahzed  much  of  their  work,  so  that 
neither  Jesuits  in  1550,  nor  Capuchins  nearly  a 
century  later,  were  able  successfully  to  stem  the 
tide,  and  the  Christian  communities  became  so 
degraded  that  at  the  beginning  of  this  century, 
although  existent,  they  compared  unfavorably 
with  their  heathen  neighbors. 

America.— About  the  same  time,  also,  the 
opening  up  of  the  New  World  offered  an  oppor- 
tunity which  the  Church  was  not  slow  to  accept. 
First  came  the  Franciscans  to  Mexico  in  1522, 
then  the  Dominicans  and  Augustinians,  and  a 
half-century  later  the  Jesuits.  With  every  con- 
quest by  Spain  or  Portugal  the  Roman  Catholics 
extended  their  own  sway,  although  not  infre- 
quently the  two  came  into  conflict,  as  when  the 
Jesuits  in  Paraguay  became  convinced  that  the 
conversion  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  was  an  es- 
sential prerequisite  to  that  of  the  subject  Indians, 
and,  failing  that,  secured  from  the  home  govern- 
ment the  right  to  govern  their  converts  them- 
selves. More  often,  however,  the  general  result 
was  that  the  childhke  savages,  while  ready 
enough  to  change  their  form  of  worship,  were 
not  so  instructed  in  the  essential  principles  of 
Christian  truth  and  morals  as  to  furnish  the  basis 
of  a  Christian  state.  As  a  consequence  the 
Roman  Catholic  countries  of  South  and  Central 
America  have  been  noted  as  the  most  ignorant 
of  all  countries  bearing  the  Christian  name. 
This  is  undoubtedly  due  in  part  to  the  character 
of  the  native  races,  indolent  and  immoral ;  but 
the  absolute  failure  of  the  earlier  missionaries  to 


34  GENERAL    HISTORY 

give  any  substantial  education  to  the  people,  of 
even  to  insist  upon  accord  to  the  laws  of  social 
morals,  must  be  held  in  considerable  degree  re- 
sponsible for  the  general  collapse. 

United  States  and  Canada.— A  different 
record  is  that  furnished  by  the  missions  to  the 
North.  In  the  United  States,  south  and  west, 
and  in  Canada,  the  work  of  the  Franciscans, 
Jesuits,  and  others  was  more  substantial.  They 
paid  considerable  attention  to  education,  and 
before  the  Pilgrims  had  landed  in  New  England 
large  numbers  of  Indians  on  the  Rio  Grande 
could  read,  while  all  the  way  from  Florida  to 
Cahfornia  numerous  and  successful  missions  were 
established,  and  the  Church  had  not  merely 
the  loyal,  but  the  enthusiastic  support  of  the  con- 
verts. In  Canada  the  missionaries  met  the  most 
bitter  opposition,  and  the  record  of  their  devo- 
tion and  courage  is  one  of  the  most  fascinating 
in  secular  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  history.  The 
sterner  character  of  the  North  American  Indians 
was  not  so  easily  influenced  as  that  of  the 
Southern  races,  and  so  bitter  was  the  feeling 
against  the  foreigners  that  it  is  said  that  not  one 
of  the  original  missionaries  failed  of  the  crown  of 
martyrdom,  often  suffering  the  most  terrible  tor- 
tures with  a  heroism  that  stirred  the  admiration 
even  of  their  stoic  murderers.  Fast  as  the  lead- 
ers fell  others  came  to  fill  their  places,  but  with 
no  permanent  advantage.  Tribal  wars  combined 
with  loyalty  to  the  Indian  faith  to  destroy  the 
work,  and  ultimately  not  only  the  missions  them- 
selves, but  almost  all  traces  of  their  work,  were 
obliterated.  Another  influence  of  great  moment 
was  the  political  opposition  of  the  English  gov- 
ernment to  everything  French ;  and  here,  too,  as 
in   so  many  instances,  Jesuit  accommodation  to 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC    MISSIONS  35 

native  ferocity,  and  even  immorality  and  supersti- 
tion, had  much  to  do  with  the  failure. 

The  Levant. — Roman  Catholic  missions 
have  been  by  no  means  confined  to  efforts  to 
convert  the  heathen  world.  Some  of  their 
strongest  energies  have  been  directed  to  bringing 
into  communion  with  the  Church  of  Rome  the 
various  branches,  especially  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  which  reject  the  supremacy  of  the  pope. 
Their  missionaries  have  worlced  with  varying  de- 
grees of  success  in  the  Levant,  in  Egypt  and 
Abyssinia,  and  among  the  remnant  of  the  Nes- 
torian  mission  in  India.  In  Abyssinia,  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  they  secured 
temporary  control,  but  a  revolution  overthrew 
their  power,  and  repeated  efforts  since  have 
availed  nothing.  In  Mesopotamia  they  have 
succeeded  in  withdrawing  from  the  Jacobite  and 
Nestorian  churches  a  considerable  community, 
now  called  Chaldean,  and  have  made  some  in- 
roads upon  the  Armenians  and  the  Greeks.  This 
work  has,  however,  been  chiefly  political,  and  can 
scarcely  be  compared  to  the  work  of  the  Church 
in  heathen  lands.  It  is  not  on  the  same  plane, 
either,  as  the  work  of  the  Protestant  churches 
in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  for  almost  no  effort 
is  made  to  raise  the  general  standard  of  educa- 
tion or  Christian  character.  The  aim  appears  to 
be  purely  ecclesiastical  and  political. 

Present  Missions. — The  impulse  given  to 
Roman  Cathohc  missions  in  the  sixteenth  century 
was  to  a  great  degree  expended  by  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth,  and  the  latter  part  of  the  last  and 
the  early  part  of  the  present  century  were  not 
marked  by  any  extended  missionary  enterprise. 
Then,  however,  the  missionary  fervor  revived,  and 
now  Roman   Catholic  missions  are  a   positive 


36  GENERAL    HISTORY 

power  in  almost  every  field.  They  are  espe- 
cially noticeable  in  Africa,  China,  and  Japan.  In 
Africa,  in  the  region  of  Uganda,  along  the  Congo, 
and  in  the  various  sections  still  under  Spanish  or 
Portuguese  rule,  they  are  aggressive,  and  in 
Madagascar  especially  have  come  to  the  front. 
Their  independent  work  appears  to  be  on  a  better 
basis  than  that  of  two  and  three  centuries  ago. 
They  pay  more  attention  to  education,  and  the 
general  tribute  to  the  Roman  Catholic  commu- 
nities of  China  and  Japan,  and  some  in  Africa, 
is  favorable  as  to  the  Christian  character  of  the 
converts.  The  bane  of  political  scheming,  how- 
ever, continues  to  attend  them  in  many  places, 
and  such  instances  as  the  Jesuit  terrorism  of  the 
Madagascar  natives  show  that  there  is  still  too 
much  of  the  same  influence  dominant  that  caused 
the  failure  of  so  many  of  the  earlier  mission  en- 
terprises. 

The  Propaganda.— No  statement,  however 
brief,  of  Roman  Catholic  missions  is  complete 
without  a  reference  to  the  organization  which 
directs  and  controls  the  work.  The  earlier  mis- 
sions of  the  Church  were  carried  on  by  the  sep- 
arate orders,  often  with  very  much  of  mutual 
jealousy  and  antagonism.  The  Jesuits  particu- 
larly were  opposed  by  the  Dominicans  and  Cap- 
uchins, and  returned  the  opposition  with  interest. 
Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  as  early  as  1580,  had 
directed  that  the  work  of  missions,  especially  in 
Oriental  lands,  should  be  under  the  care  of  cer- 
tain cardinals ;  but  no  definite  organization  was 
effected  until  1622,  when  Gregory  XV.  estab- 
lished the  CoHgregatio  de  Propaganda  Fide^  or 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  which 
ever  since  has  had  complete  control  of  all  the 
mission  enterprises  of  the  Church.     The  society. 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC   MISSIONS  37 

composed  of  a  varying  number  of  cardinals, 
about  thirty,  has  its  seat  in  Rome,  and  employs  a 
large  number  of  officials.  There  is  also  connected 
with  it  a  college  for  the  training  of  priests,  and 
including  men  of  every  race  and  nation  in  the 
world.  In  the  general  division  of  the  world  into 
terra  Catholica  and  terra  missiofiis,  according  to 
which  every  country  whose  secular  government 
does  not  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the 
pope  is  included  in  the  latter,  even  the  United 
States  is  under  the  general  supervision  and  au- 
thority of  the  Propaganda,  as  the  society  is 
ordinarily  called.  Practically,  however,  there  is 
of  course  great  difference  in  the  nature  of  the 
control  exercised  here  and  in  central  Africa.  It 
is  also  true  that  large  liberty  is  allowed  to  the 
different  orders  which  still  conduct  the  greater 
part  of  the  missionary  work  of  the  Church.  Still 
it  is  true  that  the  movements  and  duties  of  every 
ecclesiastic,  bishop,  or  priest  in  every  non-Catho- 
lic country  are  under  the  direction  of  this  society, 
and  may  be  changed  at  any  moment  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  its  members. 

General  Support.— This  centralization  of 
authority  has  its  very  evident  advantages  in  the 
efficiency  of  the  work,  the  minimizing  of  waste, 
and  economy  of  administration,  although  entirely 
incompatible  with  the  Protestant  idea  of  inde- 
pendent, free  action.  Its  weakness  appears  in 
the  fact  that  Roman  Catholics  contribute  pro- 
portionately far  less  than  Protestants  (according 
to  Cardinal  Lavigerie,  one  twentieth  as  much)  to 
the  work  of  missions.  All  subscriptions  go  to 
the  society,  and  are  used  according  to  its  judg- 
ment, no  account  being  rendered.  To  supply 
the  demand  of  some  Catholics  for  a  personal 
share  in  the  work,  some  smaller  societies  have 


38  GENERAL    HISTORY 

been  formed,  of  which  the  Society  for  the  Prop- 
agation of  the  Faith  at  Lyons,  France,  is  the 
most  important.  This  contributes  to  different 
missions  and  reports  the  work  of  those  missions. 
It  is  generally  supposed  that  a  considerable  share 
of  the  support  of  the  missions  comes  from  the 
different  orders,  many  of  them,  especially  the 
Jesuits,  being  very  wealthy.  The  pope  also 
contributes,  and  individuals,  prelates  and  others ; 
but  the  entire  absence  of  itemized  reports  makes 
a  complete  statement  impracticable.  So  far  as 
its  work  is  concerned  the  Propaganda  is  an  ab- 
solutely close  corporation,  holding  complete 
control  over  every  Roman  Catholic  agency  for 
the  conversion  of  the  non-Catholic  world. 


Ill 


EARLY    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS 

The  first  effect  of  the  Reformation  on  the 
newly  formed  Protestant  churches  was  not  in  the 
line  of  missionary  activity,  either  foreign  or  home. 
Erasmus  almost  alone  seems  to  have  recognized 
the  duty  of  world-wide  evangelization  involved 
in  the  return  to  the  principles  and  teachings  of 
the  gospel.  But  his  words  were  prophetic  rather 
than  of  immediate  force,  and  not  one  of  the  ag- 
gressive leaders  seems  to  have  really  entered  into 
the  idea  of  the  missionary  duty  of  the  Church. 
Doubtless  there  were  many  reasons  for  this.  The 
new  Church  needed  solidifying  in  its  organization 
and  clarifying  in  its  ideas.  Probably  Luther's 
well-known  conception  of  the  "  last  days "  as 
immediately  at  hand  made  him  careless  of  every- 
thing except  the  preparation  of  his  own  commu- 
nity for  the  great  change.  The  sharp  contro- 
versies among  themselves,  the  inevitable  result 
of  the  sudden  enfranchisement  of  individual 
opinion,  also  filled  the  vision  of  the  Reformers  and 
to  a  considerable  degree  shut  out  the  claims  of 
the  outside  world.  This  is  not  the  place  to  dis- 
cuss the  reasons ;  we  simply  record  the  fact  that 
it  was  not  until  two  centuries  after  the  Reforma- 
tion that  any  portion  of  the  Protestant  Church 
39 


40  GENERAL   HISTORY 

manifested  a  clear  conception  of  the  claims  of 
missions,  and  it  was  three  centuries  before  that 
conception  had  so  spread  as  really  to  make  it  a 
missionary  church. 

First  Enterprises.— During  this  period, 
however,  there  were  a  number  of  isolated  mis- 
sionary enterprises,  showing  that,  while  the  Church 
at  large  failed  to  appreciate  its  duty  and  oppor- 
tunity, individuals  tried  to  do  what  they  could. 
The  first  of  these  was  primarily  political  rather 
than  missionary.  Attracted  by  the  opportunities 
of  the  New  World,  a  half-century  before  the 
Pilgrims  landed  at  Plymouth  (1555)  a  company 
of  Frenchmen,  including  several  ministers,  under 
the  patronage  of  Admiral  Coligny,  and  with  the 
cordial  indorsement  of  John  Calvin,  sailed  for 
Brazil.  The  hope  of  Coligny  and  Calvin  was  to 
establish  there  an  asylum  for  the  persecuted 
Huguenots,  and  the  idea  of  general  evangeliza- 
tion does  not  appear  to  have  been  prominent. 
When,  however,  the  company  landed,  the  condi- 
tion of  the  savage  tribes  impressed  them  deeply, 
and  they  made  every  effort  to  reach  them,  but  soon 
unforeseen  difficulties  appeared.  The  real  leader 
proved  to  be  an  unprincipled  adventurer,  and 
ready  to  yield  his  Reformation  principles  under 
the  pressure  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  Persecu- 
tion commenced  ;  some  of  the  colony  were  killed, 
and  the  rest  compelled  to  return  to  France  within 
a  year.  This  was  followed  by  two  more  attempts 
of  similar  character  in  Florida  in  1 564  ;  but  they 
also  proved  failures,  the  Spaniards  driving  out 
the  colonists. 

The  next  missionary  enterprise  was  in  the  line 
of  home  missions,  and  was  undertaken  by  Gus- 
tavus  Vasa,  who  thus  set  the  example  which  so 
many  kings  of  Sweden  have  followed.     In  1559 


EARLY    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS  4 1 

a  missionary  was  sent  to  Lapland,  and  a  general 
evangelistic  mission  inaugurated.  At  first  com- 
paratively little  was  accomplished,  as  the  mission- 
aries spoke  only  Swedish;  but  in  1611  Gustavus 
Adolphus  established  schools  for  the  people,  and 
the  Christianization  of  the  country  was  placed  on 
a  surer  basis. 

Dutch  Colonies.— As  with  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, so  with  the  Protestant  countries,  the  opening 
up  of  foreign  colonies  and  foreign  trade  was  at- 
tended by  a  certain  missionary  effort,  confined, 
however,  to  those  colonies.  In  161 2  a  college 
for  the  training  of  missionaries  was  established  in 
connection  with  the  University  of  Leyden,  and 
one  of  the  professors  wrote  a  missionary  treatise. 
Thus  the  conquest  of  Java  by  the  Dutch  in  16 19 
was  followed  by  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
among  the  natives.  The  island  was  divided  into 
districts  and  each  district  provided  with  a  church 
and  school.  Promising  converts  were  more  fully 
educated  and  employed  as  catechists,  under  the 
general  superintendence  of  the  Dutch  ministers. 
From  Java  the  work  extended  to  the  neighboring 
islands,  to  Amboyna  and  the  Moluccas,  and  even 
to  Formosa.  The  extent  of  the  work  is  seen  in 
the  statement  that  in  1 7  2 1  there  were  over  one 
hundred  thousand  Christians  in  Java,  while  in 
Formosa  the  first  missionary  baptized  nearly  six 
thousand  adults,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years 
had  taught  six  hundred  of  the  natives  to  read. 
Similarly  the  Dutch  conquest  of  Ceylon  was  at- 
tended by  the  estabhshment  of  missions  there, 
which  sought  to  convert  not  only  the  heathen, 
but  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  result  of  the  labors 
of  the  missionaries  of  a  century  earlier.  Here  the 
results  were  numerically  large,  the  number  of 
members  connected  with  the  Dutch  Church  in 


42  GENERAL    HISTORY 

1722  being  over  four  hundred  and  twenty-four 
thousand.  The  work  also  extended  to  India, 
antedating  all  other  Protestant  work  in  that  land. 
All  this,  however,  availed  very  little.  With  the 
cession  of  Dutch  interests  to  England,  Dutch 
missions  declined  until  they  had  practically  dis- 
appeared. Similar  results  followed  the  work 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company  in  Brazil.  The  reason  is  found  in  the 
same  causes  that  operated  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
missions:  indiscriminate  baptism  without  due 
regard  to  the  development  of  substantial  Christian 
character,  and  the  emphasis  placed  upon  the 
political  and  temporal  advantage  of  conversion. 
English  Colonies. — To  this  same  period 
belong  the  early  missions  to  the  American  In- 
dians, and  they  were  in  many  respects  of  the 
same  general  character.  The  settlements  in  New 
England  were  primarily  for  the  benefit  of  the 
settlers,  and  their  efforts  at  evangelization  were 
secondary  in  their  character.  John  EHot  and 
the  Mayhews  were  actuated  in  their  evangehcal 
work  by  a  true  missionary  spirit,  but  it  was  a 
consequence  of  their  going  to  America,  not  the 
cause  of  it.  The  colonists  were  much  impressed 
with  the  needs  of  the  Indians,  but  those  needs 
had  a  direct  relation  to  their  own  life.  When,  in 
1649,  the  Long  Parliament  granted  the  first 
charter  to  a  missionary  society  "  for  the  Promot- 
ing and  Propagating  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  in 
New  England,"  the  idea  was  much  the  same  as 
that  which  led  the  Dutch  to  establish  missions  in 
their  East  Indian  colonies.  The  New  England 
Company  in  its  origin  was  a  colonial  mission,  or 
home  mission  society,  rather  than  one  for  foreign 
missions.  The  Pilgrims  and  Puritans,  however, 
were  of  different  material  from  the  Dutch  colo-  * 


EARLY    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS  43 

nists,  and,  while  the  element  of  colonial  develop- 
ment was  not  lacking,  there  was  a  truer  conception 
of  the  character  of  spiritual  work.  Somewhat 
later,  but  under  the  same  general  impulse,  was 
the  foundation  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Christian  Knowledge  (S.  P.  C.  K.),  in  1698; 
the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
(S.  P.  G.),  in  1 70 1.  This  last,  according  to  its 
charter,  was  specially  designed  for  the  "religious 
instruction  of  the  queen's  subjects  beyond  the 
seas ;  for  the  maintenance  of  clergymen  in  the 
plantations,  colonies,  and  factories  of  Great 
Britain  ;  and  for  the  propagation  of  the  gospel  in 
those  parts." 

Von  Welz. — The  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  however,  saw  a  new  development,  a  re- 
action against  the  hard  theological  discussions 
that  followed  the  Reformation,  and  a  clearer 
perception  of  the  true  relation  of  Christian  mis- 
sions to  the  development  of  the  Church.  The 
first  indication  of  it  was  the  decision  of  a  com- 
pany of  men  from  Lubeck — not  theologians,  but 
jurists — to  engage  in  foreign  mission  work.  Only 
one,  Peter  HeiHng,  reached  his  field,  Abyssinia; 
but  he  did  good  work  there.  More  important 
was  the  publication,  in  1664,  by  an  Austrian 
baron.  Von  Welz,  of  two  pubhcations  calling  for 
a  special  association  for  the  extension  of  the 
evangehcal  religion  and  the  conversion  of  the 
heathen.  He  propounded  three  questions  :  ( i ) 
"  Is  it  right  that  we,  evangehcal  Christians,  hold 
the  gospel  for  ourselves  alone,  and  do  not  seek 
to  spread  it?  "  (2)  *'  Is  it  right  that  in  all  places 
we  have  so  many  students  of  theology,  and  do 
not  induce  them  to  labor  elsewhere  in  the  spiritual 
vineyard  of  Jesus  Christ?  "  (3)  **  Is  it  right  that 
we,  evangelical  Christians,  spend  so  much  on  all 


44  GENERAL    HISTORY 

sorts  of  dress,  delicacies  in  eating  and  drinking, 
etc.,  but  have  hitherto  thought  of  no  means  for 
the  spread  of  the  gospel  ?  "  The  appeal  and  the 
questions  brought  no  answer.  They  were  fol- 
lowed by  more  vigorous  words  and  the  proposi- 
tion, doubtless  suggested  by  what  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  had  only  recently  done,  that  a 
college  for  the  propagation  of  the  faith  be  estab- 
lished, in  which  students  could  be  instructed  in 
Eastern  languages,  geography,  and  the  ways  and 
means  best  adapted  for  the  conversion  of  unbe- 
lieving nations.  This  brought  a  sharp,  even 
bitter  reply  from  one  of  the  best  men  in  the 
Church,  Ursinus  of  Ratisbon,  claiming  that  the 
Greeks  were  responsible  for  the  Turks,  the  Danes 
and  Swedes  for  the  Greenlanders  and  Lapps,  and 
that  it  was  absurd,  even  wicked,  to  cast  the  pearls 
of  the  gospel  before  the  dogs  of  cannibals,  etc. 
Von  Welz,  in  despair,  gave  up  his  barony,  went 
to  Holland,  and  thence  to  Dutch  Guiana,  re- 
solved to  do  what  he  could  in  the  line  of  what 
he  considered  duty. 

The  Pietists.— Others,  however,  felt  the  same 
truth  as  inspired  Von  Welz.  The  philosopher 
Leibnitz,  with  probably  more  of  scientific  than 
evangelistic  purpose,  urged  the  Berlin  Academy, 
at  its  foundation  in  1700,  to  "occupy  itself  with 
the  propagation  of  the  true  faith  and  of  Christian 
virtue  .  .  .  among  the  remote  and  unconverted 
nations,"  especially  China.  The  great  impulse, 
however,  was  given  by  the  German  Pietists, 
Spener  and  Francke.  Pietism  was  more  than  a 
mere  protest  against  creed  formalism.  It  was  an 
assertion  of  spiritual  life.  It  took  shape  first  in 
the  appointment  of  Spener  as  pastor  at  Frankfort 
in  1662,  and  attained  general  recognition  when^ 
Francke  and  two  others  of  similar  views  were 


EARLY    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS  45 

made  members  of  the  faculty  of  the  new  Univer- 
sity of  Halle,  where  they  were  surrounded  by  a 
great  number  of  enthusiastic  students. 

Danish  Tamil  Mission.— In  1704  Dr. 
Liitkens,  an  intimate  friend  of  Francke,  who  had 
been  in  Berhn,  and  afterward  made  court  chap- 
lain at  Copenhagen,  represented  to  KingFriedrich 
IV.  of  Denmark  the  duty  of  providing  Christian 
education  for  the  people  in  the  Danish  colonies. 
The  king  entered  into  the  plan  most  cordially, 
and  two  students  from  the  University  of  Halle 
were  appointed  to  go.  The  first  idea  seems  to 
have  been  to  send  them  to  the  West  Indies. 
That,  however,  failed,  and  the  Coromandel  Coast 
of  India  was  selected.  The  two  men,  Bartholo- 
mew Ziegenbalg  and  Henry  Plutschau,  sailed  in 
1705  for  Tranquebar,  and  commenced  their  work 
at  once,  learning  the  Tamil  language,  and  not 
only  preaching,  but  preparing  a  version  of  the 
Bible.  Although  having  the  cordial  support  of 
the  king  and  provided  by  him  with  money,  they 
met  the  increasing  opposition  of  the  Danish  local 
authorities  and  the  foreign  residents.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  support  came  from  the  two 
English  societies  for  the  Promoting  of  Christian 
Knowledge  and  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel, 
which  had  been  recently  formed  for  colonial 
rather  than  for  foreign  mission  work.  The  fact 
that  most  of  the  missionaries  connected  with  this 
enterprise  came  from  Halle,  and  naturally  looked 
to  Halle  for  general  guidance  and  counsel,  while 
the  support  came  from  Denmark,  led  to  the  mis- 
sion's being  known  as  the  Danish-Halle  or  Danish- 
Hallsk  mission.  It  continued  through  the  greater 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  but  the  dominant 
German  element  was  distasteful  to  the  Danes, 
and  after  the  death,  in  1 798,  of  Schwartz — next  to 


46  GENERAL    HISTORY 

Ziegenbalg  the  best  known  of  the  missionaries— 
the  Danish  support  fell  off.  In  1825  the  king 
dedined  to  send  any  more  money,  and  in  1847 
the  entire  mission  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Leipsic  Society. 

The  King  of  Denmark  did  not,  however,  con- 
tent himself  with  the  "Old  Tamil  Mission"  in 
India.  The  Copenhagen  College,  established  in 
1 7 14,  sent  out  two  missionaries  to  the  North: 
Thomas  von  Westen  in  17 16  to  Lapland,  and 
Hans  Egede  in  1721  to  Greenland.  Neither  of 
these  enterprises,  however,  proved  permanent, 
King  Friedrich's  successor  ordering  the  discon- 
tinuance of  the  settlements.  The  rise  of  the 
Moravian  missions  at  about  the  same  time  fur- 
nished field  for  those  Danes  interested  in  mission 
work,  and  quite  a  number  went  to  the  various 
stations  in  the  West  Indies  and  Africa. 

The  Moravians.— The  great  missionary 
event  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  the  founding 
of  the  Unitas  Fratrum,  often,  though  incorrectly, 
called  the  United  Brethren,  best  known  as  the 
Moravians.  The  story  of  the  formation  of  this 
community  in  1467,  when  the  followers  of  Huss, 
certain  Waldenses  and  Moravians,  united  as  the 
Unitas  Fratrum ;  of  their  subsequent  bitter  ex- 
periences, and  at  last  of  their  finding  a  home  on 
the  estates  of  Count  Zinzendorf  in  Saxony,  does 
not  belong  to  this  place,  although  it  must  be  read 
in  order  to  a  complete  understanding  of  the  sub- 
sequent history.  More  immediately  essential  is 
the  story  of  the  life  of  Zinzendorf  himself,  for  it 
binds  the  Halle  movement  under  Spener  and 
Francke  with  the  later  developments  of  mission 
work.  The  marvel  of  modern  readers  and  ob-^ 
servers  of  missions  has  been  that  a  community 
in  itself  so  weak  in  numbers,  wealth,  and  educa- 


EARLY    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS  47 

tion  should  have  accompHshed  such  a  work. 
The  explanation  is  doubtless  to  be  found  in  great 
measure  in  the  impulse  given  by  this  remarkable 
man,  who  put  the  whole  result  of  training  in  the 
schools,  in  social,  civil,  and  pohtical  life,  at  the 
service  of  those  whose  one  idea  was  the  growth 
of  spiritual  hfe,  until  he  became  a  director  and 
guide  of  the  most  self-denying  service  missions 
have  known.  There  have  been  many  mission- 
aries as  faithful,  devoted,  self-denying,  heroic,  as 
any  that  have  represented  the  Moravians  on  the 
foreign  field.  There  have  been  pioneers  as  bold, 
as  persistent.  There  have  been,  perhaps,  enter- 
prises more  wisely  planned.  But  probably  no 
community  in  the  history  of  the  Church  has  set 
itself  about  the  work  of  converting  the  world  with 
so  httle  thought  of  results,  so  completely  under 
the  bond  of  duty.  That  a  field  was  a  hard  one 
and  likely  to  show  httle  reward  has  been  in  itself, 
apparently,  the  best  claim  upon  their  labor. 
Their  methods  have  been  criticized  as  not  broad 
enough  in  their  scope,  but  their  individual  devo- 
tion has  won  the  praise  of  all  who  have  known 
of  their  work,  and  no  one  can  study  the  life  of 
their  great  leader  without  seeing  how  his  spirit 
has  dominated  all. 

Development  of  Missions. — The  immedi- 
ate occasion  for  the  foreign  work  of  the  Moravians 
was  a  visit  of  Count  Zinzendorf  to  Copenhagen 
in  1 73 1,  nine  years  after  the  reception  of  the 
Moravian  colony  at  his  estate  in  Berthelsdorf,  to 
represent  the  Saxon  court  at  the  coronation  of 
Christian  VI.,  successor  to  Friedrich  IV.  There 
he  saw  two  Eskimos  who  had  been  baptized  by 
Hans  Egede,  and  was  saddened  by  the  news  that 
the  mission  to  Greenland  must  be  given  up.  His 
attendants  also  met  a  negro,  Anthony,  who  told 


48  GENERAL    HISTORY 

of  the  sufferings  of  the  slaves  in  the  Danish  West 
Indies.  The  story  roused  their  sympathy,  and 
when  repeated  at  Herrnhut,  stirred  two  men, 
Dober,  a  potter,  and  Nitschmann,  a  carpenter, 
to  a  resolve  to  go  to  St.  Thomas  and  teach  them 
of  the  gospel.  With  barely  money  enough  to 
reach  Copenhagen,  they  pressed  on,  bound  to 
get  through  in  some  way.  The  count  took  them 
in  his  carriage  to  Bautzen,  and  gave  each  a  small 
sum  of  money,  but  from  that  they  worked  their 
own  way.  This  was  in  August,  1732.  In 
January,  1733,  two  others  started  for  Greenland  ; 
and  in  the  same  year  a  large  party  went  to  St. 
Croix  in  the  West  Indies.  Surinam,  Dutch 
Guiana,  was  occupied  in  1735,  and  two  years 
later  South  Africa  was  entered.  Then  came  the 
work  among  the  North  American  Indians,  espe- 
cially in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  In  all 
Zinzendorf  himself  was  so  interested  that  he  made 
several  visits,  especially  to  the  West  Indies  and 
Pennsylvania,  before  his  death  in  1760. 

Extent. — A  survey  of  the  fields  entered  by 
the  Moravians  shows  that  there  is  scarcely  a 
country  where  they  have  not  made  an  attempt 
at  least  to  gain  a  foothold.  Their  successful 
missions  have  been  chiefly  in  the  West  Indies, 
Central  America,  north  coast  of  South  America, 
the  Indians  of  the  United  States  and  Alaska,  and 
Labrador  on  this  continent ;  but  they  have  work 
also  in  South  Africa  and  AustraHa,  and  their 
central  Asian  mission  on  the  borders  of  Tibet 
holds  its  own  despite  discouragements.  They 
have  made  unsuccessful  attempts,  sometimes 
covering  a  short  period  of  years,  sometimes  re-  * 
peated  at  brief  intervals,  in  Ceylon,  Persia,  China, 
Algiers,  Abyssinia,  the  Guinea  coast  of  Africa, 
I  he   P^'ist   Indies,  on  the   Russian  shore  of  the 


EARLY    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS  49 

Arctic  Ocean,  and  among  the  Kalmucks  of 
Siberia.  In  all  this  work  the  entire  Church  or 
community  has  always  been  most  deeply  inter- 
ested. With  the  extension  of  its  membership 
into  other  lands  the  missionary  element  has  con- 
tinued to  hold  a  prominent  place.  It  has  also 
attracted  the  interest  and  support  of  others,  and 
not  a  small  part  of  the  income  of  the  society 
comes  from  England  through  the  London  Asso- 
ciation in  Aid  of  Moravian  Missions. 

Methodism. — While  the  Pietists  of  Halle 
were  conducting  the  Tamil  mission  of  Ziegenbalg 
and  Schwartz,  and  through  Zinzendorf  were  set- 
ting in  motion  the  Moravian  enterprises,  a  similar 
movement  was  starting  in  England.  The  Oxford 
Club,  of  which  the  Wesleys  were  such  influential 
members,  and  which  laid  the  foundations  of 
Methodism  and  contributed  so  much  to  the 
spiritual  regeneration  of  England,  was  started  in 
1729.  Six  years  later  the  Wesleys  went  with 
General  Oglethorpe  to  Georgia,  but  found  their 
work  limited  chiefly  to  the  settlers,  and  returned 
somewhat  dissatisfied  with  the  opportunities  for 
preaching  and  open  to  influences  for  a  still  more 
spiritual  life.  On  their  way  out  they  had  come 
in  contact  with  a  band  of  Moravians,  and  on 
their  return  came  under  the  influence  of  the 
Moravian  Bolder.  In  1738  John  Wesley  visited 
Herrnhut,  and  was  very  much  impressed  with 
what  he  saw  and  heard ;  and  in  the  subsequent 
work  of  the  two  brothers  and  their  associate 
Whitefield  the  result  of  the  influence  of  Zinzen- 
dorf and  his  teacher  Francke  was  very  manifest. 
With  them,  too,  the  effect  was  seen  in  an  increas- 
ing desire  for  evangelization,  but  for  some  reason 
the  evangelization  did  not  take  as  wide  a  scope. 
It  was  still  the  colonial  or  home  idea  that  dom- 


so  GENERAL    HISTORY 

inated,  not  the  conception  of  a  world  to  be 
converted.  It  was  not  until  1 786,  when  Thomas 
Coke,  originally  sent  to  Nova  Scotia  to  preach 
Methodism  among  the  English  settlers,  was  driven 
by  a  storm  to  the  West  Indies  and  was  brought 
face  to  face  with  the  condition  of  the  slaves,  that 
the  heathen  world  began  to  assume  its  proper 
place  in  the  thought  even  of  the  Wesleyans  ;  and 
it  was  a  quarter  of  a  century  later  before  their 
first  real  foreign  mission  was  commenced  in 
Africa.  Through  all  this  period,  however,  the 
influence  of  the  new  movement  was  spreading 
and  preparation  was  being  made  for  the  work  of 
Carey  and  his  associates. 

Colonial  Extension.— No  statement  of  the 
mission  enterprise  of  the  two  and  a  half  centuries 
that  intervened  between  the  Reformation  and 
what  is  called  the  era  of  modern  missions  is  com- 
plete that  does  not  include  a  reference  to  the 
service  rendered,  often  unwillingly,  by  the  great 
colonizing  schemes  of  the  Reformed  countries. 
As  Spain  and  Portugal  by  their  extension  had 
rendered  invaluable  assistance  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  missions,  so  the  missions  of  the 
Protestant  Church  are  greatly  indebted  to  Eng- 
land, Holland,  and  Denmark.  The  attitude  of 
these  governments,  it  is  true,  was  in  many  cases 
hostile.  While  the  kings  of  Denmark  were 
friendly,  the  colonial  officers  were  often  the 
reverse.  Dutch  preaching  was  to  a  considerable 
degree  neutralized  by  Dutch  colonial  schemes. 
The  East  India  Company  was  proverbially  the 
enemy  of  all  who  sought  to  elevate  the  character jt 
of  the  people  under  its  rule.  Still  there  were 
individuals  in  all  of  these  organizations,  whether 
purely  political  or  partly  commercial,  who  had 
a  conception  of  the  responsibility  resting  upon 


EARLY    PROTESTANT    MISSIONS  5 1 

them  and  welcomed  the  efforts  of  Christian  men. 
All  alike  introduced  order  in  place  of  anarchy, 
brought  the  remote  ends  of  the  earth  into  con- 
nection with  Christian  lands,  and  helped  to  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  work  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  much  as  Greece  and  Rome  prepared  the 
way  for  the  early  Church. 


IV 


BRITISH    MISSIONS 


The  dominant  thought  of  the  Moravians,  as 
of  the  Danish-Tamil  mission  and  the  eighteenth- 
century  work  in  America,  was  devotion,  sym- 
pathy. The  distress  of  the  people  without  the 
gospel,  their  sad  estate,  dwelt  most  in  the  thoughts 
and  hearts  of  Ziegenbalg  and  Schwartz,  Dober 
and  Nitschmann,  Eliot  and  Brainerd.  With  the 
revolt  against  the  formality  and  ecclesiasticism 
attending  the  Restoration,  and  under  the  keen 
thought  of  Jonathan  Edwards  in  America  and 
Andrew  Fuller  in  England,  emphasizing  the  need 
of  prayer,  there  grew  up  an  overwhelming  sense 
of  duty.  The  sterner  Calvinism  asserted  itself, 
and  men  began  to  feel  the  weight  of  a  world 
lying  in  sin,  as  they  began  to  think  more  of  the 
power  and  sovereignty  of  God.  With  their  duty 
of  obedience  to  Him  went  also  the  sense  of  duty 
of  service  to  their  fellow-men.  As  early  as  1723 
a  Presbyterian  minister  in  Scotland  had  empha- 
sized this  point,  and  throughout  a  series  of  r^ 
vivals  the  thought  was  kept,  resulting,  in  1740, 
in  a  prayer  concert  of  seven  weeks,  in  which 
Jonathan  Edwards  had  a  share,  his  sermon  after- 
ward exerting  considerable  influence  on  Carey. 
In  the  same  period  many  of  the  missionary  hymns 
52 


BRITISH    MISSIONS  53 

were  written :  "  Jesus  shall  reign  where'er  the 
sun,"  "Arm  of  the  Lord,  awake,  awake,"  "O'er 
the  gloomy  hills  of  darkness,"  etc. 

First  Steps. — For  nearly  forty  years  these 
influences  worked,  but  brought  no  perceptible 
fruit,  although  the  general  influence  of  the  Wes- 
leys  was  being  felt  by  all  classes  and  in  all  sec- 
tions. The  initiative  in  the  new  movement  was 
made  by  the  Baptists.  At  a  meeting  of  the 
ministers  of  that  body  in  1784  it  was  agreed  to 
unite  in  regular  prayer  for  a  special  outpouring 
of  the  Spirit,  and  there  was  also  an  earnest 
exhortation  to  include  in  their  most  "  fer^-ent 
requests  "  "  the  spread  of  the  gospel  to  the  most 
distant  parts  of  the  globe."  Three  years  later, 
Andrew  Fuller,  who  had  preached  at  this  meeting 
on  "  Walking  by  Faith,"  ordained  William  Carey  ; 
and  five  years  later,  chiefly  under  the  influence  of 
these  two  men,  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society 
was  formed,  the  first  of  the  great  number  of  soci- 
eties to  take  up  the  work  of  foreign  missions  as 
a  distinct  and  integral  part  of  the  duty  of  the 
Church.  It  is  significant,  however,  of  the  wide- 
spread interest  in  the  subject  that  soon  after  the 
ministers'  meeting  referred  to  above  a  clerical 
society  in  the  Church  of  England  was  engaged  in 
the  earnest  discussion  of  the  question.  How 
might  the  gospel  be  carried  to  the  heathen? 
The  fact,  also,  that  the  London  Missionary  So- 
ciety and  the  Church  Missionary  Society  were 
formed  so  soon  afterward  shows  that  the  spirit  of 
missions  had  already  a  wide  and  deep  hold  on 
the  Christian  thinking  of  the  time.  It  was 
Carey's  good  fortune  to  give  expression  to  that 
thought  and  lead  the  way  where  others  were  glad 
to  follow. 

William  Carey.— There  is  always  a  peculiar 


54  GENERAL    HISTORY 

interest  in  the  personality  of  men  who  open  up 
new  hnes  of  action,  who  do  what  others  only  dare 
to  think.  This  interest  attaches  in  a  special 
degree  to  William  Carey.  A  proud  churchman, 
he  joined  the  evangelical  dissenters  in  1779,  under 
the  influence  of  a  fellow-worker  in  his  trade,  and 
developed  into  a  village  preacher  of  such  ability 
that  Andrew  Fuller,  well  known  as  a  theologian, 
was  attracted  to  him.  Already  by  dogged  per- 
severance he  had  mastered  Latin,  Greek,  French, 
Dutch,  and  Hebrew.  School-teacher,  cobbler, 
and  minister,  he  found  time  to  read  most  of  what 
was  worth  reading,  but  applied  everything  to  the 
work  of  the  evangelization  of  the  heathen.  From 
1 78 1,  when  only  twenty  years  old,  he  privately 
and  publicly  pressed  the  topic  on  all  who  came 
within  his  reach.  A  map  of  the  world  hung  in 
his  stall,  with  the  statistics,  religious  and  politi- 
cal, so  far  as  known,  of  every  country.  In  1792 
he  published  an  ''  Inquiry  into  the  Obligations  of 
Christians  to  Use  Means  for  the  Conversion  of 
the  Heathen,"  and  followed  this  by  his  famous 
sermon  from  Isaiah  liv.  2,  3,  with  the  two  mot- 
tos,  "  Expect  great  things  from  God,"  "Attempt 
great  things  for  God."  So  profound  was  the 
impression  made  by  this  on  the  company  of 
ministers  present  that  twelve  of  them  withdrew 
into  the  parlor  of  a  neighboring  house  and  formed 
the  **  Particular  (Calvinistic)  Baptist  Society  for 
Propagating  the  Gospel  among  the  Heathen." 
To  meet  the  necessary  expense  they  opened  a 
subscription,  giving  themselves  ^^13  2s.  6^. 
($65.62).  The  indomitable  purpose  that  over- 
bore the  opposition  of  his  fellow-ministers  stayed 
by  Carey  through  the  succeeding  months,  until, 
in  June,  1 793,  with  his  family  and  a  Mr.  Thomas, 
already  interested  in,  but  strangely  unfitted  for, 


BRITISH    MISSIONS  55 

mission  work,  he  set  sail  for  India  instead  of 
Otaheite,  as  he  had  hoped,  and  landed  at  Cal- 
cutta. The  same  devotion  supported  him  through 
the  discouragements  of  those  early  years, — the 
study  of  the  languages,  the  ill  health  of  his  family, 
the  opposition  of  the  civil  authorities, — and  helped 
him  lay  deep  the  foundations  of  later  missions  in 
that  great  continent.  That  story,  however,  does 
not  belong  here. 

Baptist  Missions. — The  development  of 
the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  was  not  as  rapid 
as  that  of  some  other  organizations.  It  was  not 
until  1 8 13  that  a  beginning  of  work  was  made 
in  the  West  Indies,  and  it  was  twenty-nine  years 
later  that  the  west  coast  of  Africa  was  occupied, 
developing  into  the  great  work  on  the  Congo 
afterward  transferred  'o  the  Americans.  There 
were  various  attempts  to  enter  China,  at  last 
successful  in  1877,  and  two  years  later  the  Japan 
mission  was  started.  The  society  also  works  in 
Palestine  and  in  Europe — Brittany,  Norway,  and 
Italy.  Parallel  with  its  strictly  missionary  work 
the  society  has  made  an  effort  to  reach  the  Eng- 
lishmen resident  in  foreign  lands,  maintaining 
thus  a  large  colonial  work,  especially  in  Ceylon. 
The  great  field  of  the  society,  however,  is  India, 
in  four  missions :  the  Bengal  mission,  including 
Serampore,  Calcutta,  etc. ;  the  Hindustani  mis- 
sion, Patna,  Agra,  etc. ;  the  Burman,  Bhutan, 
and  Orissa  mission;  and  Ceylon.  In  181 6  the 
General  Baptist  Missionary  Society  was  formed, 
representing  the  Arminian  branch,  corresponding 
to  the  Freewill  Baptists  in  the  United  States. 
Their  chief  field  is  in  India,  Orissa,  but  they  also 
carry  on  work  in  Italy. 

London  Missionary  Society.— The  influ- 
ences that  had  operated  to  send  Carey  to  India 


56  GENERAL    HISTORY 

did  not  stop  with  the  organization  of  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Society.  All  England,  as  well  as 
Scotland,  felt  in  varying  proportion  the  spiritual 
revival,  and  many  communities  were  ready  to 
respond  to  the  first  appeal.  This  came  in  the 
form  of  some  letters  from  Carey  to  his  supporters 
in  England.  One  of  these,  Dr.  Ryland,  of 
Bristol,  invited  two  Presbyterian  friends,  one  of 
them  the  Rev.  David  Bogue,  of  Gosport,  to  hear 
these  letters  read.  They,  in  turn,  called  on  an- 
other prominent  minister;  and  in  September, 
1794,  there  appeared  an  address  to  "professors 
of  the  gospel,"  calling  for  the  support  by  non- 
Baptists  of  "  at  least  twenty  or  thirty  missionaries 
among  the  heathen."  In  November  a  formal 
meeting  of  evangelical  ministers  of  all  sects  was 
held,  resulting,  in  January,  1795,  in  a  circular 
letter  to  churches,  asking  their  consideration  of 
the  question  and  the  appointment  of  delegates 
to  a  meeting  in  the  fall.  The  interest  was  in- 
creased by  an  article  by  a  well-known  clergyman 
of  the  Church  of  England,  the  Rev.  T.  H. 
Haweis,  on  the  openings  for  mission  work  in  the 
South  Seas,  and  when  the  time  came  for  the 
meeting  in  September  everything  was  ready.  On 
September  21,  1795,  at  the  Castle  and  Falcon  in 
London,  the  meetings  commenced  which  culmi- 
nated in  the  formation  of  the  London  Mission- 
ary Society.  As  Independent  (Congregational), 
Presbyterian,  Wesleyan,  and  Episcopal  ministers 
had  joined  in  the  prehminary  steps,  it  was  decided 
to  make  the  basis  of  the  society  very  broad,  em^ 
phasizing  no  one  form  of  church  government, 
but  leaving  the  selection  of  that  to  the  converts 
on  the  field.  The  enthusiasm  resulting  from 
these  meetings  was  very  great  and  spread  over 
England  and  Scotland.     Subscriptions  large  and 


BRITISH    MISSIONS  57 

small  came  in,  until  in  October  they  had  three 
thousand  pounds,  more  than  double  that  sum  by 
January,  1796,  and  in  June  fully  ten  thousand 
pounds.  Volunteers  for  missionary  service  also 
came  in,  and  in  August  the  ship  Duff^  with  twenty- 
nine  missionaries,  sailed  for  Tahiti.  Scarcely 
was  the  expedition  out  of  sight  of  the  shores  of 
England  when  plans  were  formed  for  still  further 
extension  of  the  work.  Next  to  the  South  Seas, 
Africa,  even  in  that  time,  seemed  to  show  the 
greatest  need,  and  the  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh 
societies,  formed  in  the  spring  of  1796,  turning' 
their  attention  in  that  direction,  the  London; 
Society  joined  with  them  in  sending  an  expedition  \ 
to  Sierra  Leone.  This  did  not  prove  a  success,  ■ 
and  as  attention  was  directed  to  the  Cape,  an- 
other company,  including  John  Vanderkemp, 
was  sent  there  to  lay  the  foundations  for  the  work 
among  the  great  Bantu  races.  There  were  at- 
tempts to  start  work  in  India,  succeeding  in  1804 
in  the  Travancore  mission,  and  later  in  North 
India.  The  West  Indies  also  called  for  help  and 
received  it,  and  in  18 18  the  mission  in  Mada- 
gascar was  established.  The  same  year  Siberia 
and  Tartary  were  entered,  but  the  missionaries 
were  not  allowed  to  remain,  and  Malacca,  once 
occupied,  was  afterward  handed  over  to  the 
Netherlands  Society.  The  same  year  that  the 
Travancore  mission  was  started,  Robert  Morrison 
was  engaged  to  study  the  Chinese  language,  and 
in  1807  he  landed  in  Canton,  the  pioneer  of  the 
modern  evangelical  Churches.  The  work  thus 
established  was  built  up,  but  not  greatly  extended 
until,  in  1879,  in  response  to  another  call  from 
Africa,  the  society  established  its  mission  at  Lake 
Tanganyika. 

The  society  did  not  long  hold  its  general  inter- 


58  GENERAL    HISTORY 

denominational  character.  The  formation  of 
the  Church  Missionary  Society,  in  1 799,  furnished 
the  natural  medium  for  the  missionary  interest  of 
evangelical  churchmen.  In  18 14  the  Wesleyan 
Society  was  formed.  Later  the  various  Presby- 
terian boards  reached  their  own  people,  and  at 
present  the  Congregationalists,  or  Independents, 
as  they  were  then  known,  are  practically  its  sole 
supporters,  as  has  also  been  the  case  in  the 
American  Board  in  the  United  States.  It  was 
in  a  special  sense  a  pioneer  society.  It  laid  the 
foundations  in  the  South  Sea  Islands,  in  China, 
and  in  Africa  and  Madagascar,  and  its  roll  of 
missionaries  comprises  a  large  proportion  of  those 
who  have  been  the  leaders :  John  Williams,  of 
Eromanga ;  Robert  Morrison,  of  China;  John 
Vanderkemp,  Robert  and  Mary  Moffat,  and 
David  Livingstone,  of  Africa.  Its  experience 
furnished  the  text-book  for  successors,  and  the 
early  failures  in  the  Pacific  prevented  similar  ones 
elsewhere.  One  of  these  lessons  was  the  value 
of  educated  service.  The  first  missionaries  of 
this  society,  unlike  Carey  and  his  associates,  were 
untrained  men  and  women,  largely  artisans.  Few 
clergymen  offered  as  leaders,  just  as,  a  few  years 
later,  the  Church  of  England  had  to  turn  to 
Germany  for  workers.  The  mistake  was  soon 
rectified,  and  later  success  witnessed  to  the  high 
grade  of  ability,  as  well  as  to  the  consecration,  of 
the  missionaries. 

Church  of  England.— The  next  community 
to  feel  the  influence  of  the  new  spirit  was  the 
evangehcal  element  in  the  Church  of  England. 
Since  1701  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Gospel  had  been  face  to  face  with  the  hea- 
then world  in  the  various  colonies,  but  had  con- 
fined its  labors  to  the  English  settlers,     As  has 


BRITISH    MISSIONS  59 

already  been  noted,  while  Carey  was  cobbling 
and  preaching  and  thinking,  a  company  of  the 
Church  of  England  clergy  formed  the  "  Eclectic 
Society  "  for  the  discussion  of  rehgious  questions. 
The  discussion  was  assisted  by  the  interest 
aroused  in  connection  with  the  formation  of  the 
London  Society,  in  which  some  Episcopalians, 
notably  Dr.  Haweis,  had  an  important  share. 
In  April,  1799,  a  number  of  these  met  in  the 
Castle  and  Falcon  in  London,  and  formed  the 
"  Society  for  Missions  to  Africa  and  the  East," 
the  name  being  later  changed  to  "  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society  for  Africa  and  the  East."  The 
evangelical  and  broadly  liberal  spirit  of  Wilber- 
force,  Scott  the  commentator,  and  Henry  Venn 
was  manifest  in  the  declaration  of  its  purpose  to 
maintain  cordial  relations  with  other  societies 
engaged  in  the  same  work  of  missions.  While 
loyal  to  its  Church,  it  received  at  first  little  sup- 
port from  the  Episcopal  authorities,  and  although 
this  coolness  ceased,  and  now  all  the  dignitaries 
are  interested  in  its  welfare,  it  has  still  had  to 
meet  much  opposition,  especially  from  the  High- 
church  element,  represented  so  largely  among 
the  colonial  bishops.  They,  however,  could  not 
resist  the  influences  that  were  abroad,  and  in 
1826  secured  a  change  in  the  pohcy  of  the  old 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  and 
made  that  an  aggressive  missionary  society. 

Church  Missionary  Society.— It  was  not 
for  some  little  time  that  the  Church  Missionary 
Society  actually  entered  the  field.  In  1802 
Henry  Martyn  applied  for  a  commission  to  go 
to  India ;  but  as  under  the  rule  of  the  East  India 
Company  this  could  not  be  allowed,  he  accepted 
a  chaplaincy  in  that  company,  and  started  the 
train  of  heroic  missionaries  of  the  society  in  every 


6o  GENERAL    HISTORY 

part  of  the  globe.  The  first  expedition  was  to 
West  Africa,  where  so  many  others  had  failed, 
and  the  foundations  of  the  Sierra  Leone  Church 
were  laid.  New  Zealand  (1814),  the  Levant 
(181 5),  India  (1816),  Ceylon  (181 7),  followed; 
then  Northwest  America  with  its  Indian  work 
(1826),  east  equatorial  Africa  (1844),  China 
(1845),  Mauritius  (1854),  and  Japan  (1869).  It, 
too,  has  done  much  of  pioneer  work,  especially 
in  Africa,  America,  and  New  Zealand.  It  has 
met  Islam  as  no  other  society  has.  In  one  re- 
spect its  management  is  unique.  More  than 
most,  if  not  all,  societies,  it  keeps  in  the  closest 
possible  touch  with  its  constituency,  employing 
a  staff  in  the  home  office  much  larger  than  any 
other.  It  is,  perhaps,  a  not  unnatural  result  that 
it  has  a  larger  income  than  any  other.  For  the 
ten  years  1887-97  it  refused  no  candidate  on 
account  of  financial  stress,  and  it  has  steadily 
advanced.  It  has  had  a  noble  army  of  workers  : 
Selwyn,  Hannington,  Mackay,  Crowther,  French. 
It  has  been  among  the  foremost  in  the  examina- 
tion and,  if  approved,  the  adoption  of  new 
methods,  and  has  not  feared  to  enter  the  field  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  Eastern  Churches  with 
a  more  evangelical  gospel  than  the  priests  have 
taught.  Its  older  and  yet  younger  sister  society 
has  also  done  a  noble  work,  if  a  less  noticeable 
one,  especially  in  South  Africa,  China,  and 
Borneo.  In  close  connection  with  it  is  the  Mel- 
anesian  mission,  with  its  record  of  Bishops 
Selwyn,  of  New  Zealand,  and  Patteson,  the 
martyr  of  Melanesia.  Tlie  Universities'  Mission, 
on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  is  also  more  under 
the  control  of  the  High-church  element,  as  are 
similar  but  less  important  enterprises  in  India. 
The  Wesleyans.— TheWesleyans,  who  had 


BRITISH    MISSIONS  6l 

done  so  much  to  arouse  the  general  missionary 
spirit  in  the  eighteenth  century,  did  not  establish 
a  distinct  missionary  society  until  1814.  They 
had  not,  however,  been  idle.  As  has  already 
been  noted,  Dr.  Thomas  Coke  had,  in  1786, 
inaugurated  a  mission  in  the  West  Indies.  He 
continued  to  press  the  claims  of  this  work,  and 
was  supported  by  the  Conference.  In  the 
establishment  of  the  London  Missionary  Society 
the  Wesleyans  had  a  share,  but  in  1804  a  special 
committee  of  three  was  appointed  to  superintend 
Dr.  Coke's  efforts.  In  181 1  a  second  attempt 
(the  first  having  been  in  1 769)  was  made  to  found 
a  mission  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and  after 
some  difficulties  succeeded.  In  1813  Dr.  Coke, 
at  the  age  of  seventy-six,  started  for  Ceylon. 
His  death  that  year  made  some  reorganization 
imperative,  and  the  next  year  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Missionary  Society  was  formed.  The 
first  field  to  be  entered  under  the  new  organiza- 
tion was  South  Africa.  Then  followed  New 
South  Wales  (181 5),  Tasmania  (182 1),  Victoria 
(1838),  and  Queensland  (1850).  These  were 
chiefly  colonial  missions,  but  in  1822  one  was 
established  among  the  Maoris  of  New  Zealand, 
and  another  in  the  Friendly  Islands  in  1826. 
The  work  in  Fiji,  which  played  so  important  a 
part  in  the  history  of  the  society,  was  commenced 
in  1834.     China,  also,  was  occupied  in  1853. 

Scotch  Societies.— Parallel  with  the  devel- 
opment of  missionary  activity  in  England  was 
the  growth  of  the  same  spirit  in  Scotland.  As 
early  as  1709  a  Scotch  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Christian  Knowledge  had  been  formed,  and 
had,  more  than  its  sister  society  in  England,  in- 
terested itself  in  active  missionary  work.  It 
established  a  Board  of  Correspondents  in  New 


62  GENERAL    HISTORY 

York  in  1741,  and  assisted  it  in  employing  mis- 
sionaries among  the  Indians,  the  second  being 
David  Brainerd.  The  formation  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society  revived  interest,  and  societies 
were  formed  in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  in  1796. 
The  latter  aimed  especially  to  give  aid  to  Carey's 
work  in  India  and  to  the  Moravians,  but  both 
undertook  missions,  with,  however,  limited  means 
and  no  great  success.  A  Scotchman,  Robert 
Haldane,  a  munificent  contributor  to  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  conceived  the  idea  of  a  per- 
sonal mission  to  India,  to  which  he  was  willing 
to  devote  his  large  property  ;  but  the  scheme  was 
defeated  by  the  opposition  of  the  East  India 
Company.  The  Edinburgh  (Scottish)  and  Glas- 
gow societies  kept  missionaries  in  India,  Africa, 
the  West  Indies,  and  Turkestan  for  a  time ;  but 
as  the  missionary  spirit  in  the  Church  developed, 
under  the  influence  of  Duff's  work  in  India,  both 
of  them  were  merged  in  the  organizations,  first 
of  the  Established  Church,  and  later  of  the  Free 
Church  and  the  United  Church. 

In  1 8 18  Dr.  Inglis  commenced  his  earnest 
efforts  to  arouse  the  Church  to  its  duty,  and  in 
1825  succeeded  in  securing  the  appointment  of 
a  committee  to  further  the  cause.  The  sending 
of  Duff  to  India,  in  1829,  did  for  Scotland  what 
Carey  did  for  England,  and  since  then  missionary 
activity  has  not  wavered.  The  disruption  in 
1843  affected  the  India  work  of  the  Established 
Church  seriously,  but  propositions  for  division  of 
interests  were  declined,  and  both  branches  pressed 
on  to  do  a  double  work.  Four  years  after  the 
disruption  the  several  bodies  that  had  united  in 
the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland 
commenced  their  own  mission  work.  The  work 
of  the  Established  and  Free  Churches  in  India, 


BRITISH    MISSIONS  63 

and  also  in  Africa,  has  been  to  a  considerable 
degree  educational,  resulting  in  the  great  mis- 
sionary colleges  at  Bombay,  Madras,  and  Cal- 
cutta, and  the  famous  Lovedale  Institute  in 
South  Africa,  the  model  for  so  many  other  insti- 
tutions. The  fields  occupied  by  the  three  so- 
cieties are:  Established  Church:  India  (1829); 
East  Africa,  Blantyre  (1874);  China  (1877); 
Free  Church:  India  (1843);  South  Africa,  from 
the  Glasgow  society  (1844) ;  East  Africa,  Living- 
stonia  (1875);  Syria  (1872);  New  Hebrides 
(1848);  United  Presbyterian  Church:  West 
Indies  (1847)  ^  ^^est  Africa,  Old  Calabar  (1847) ; 
South  Africa  (1847);  India  (1857);  China, 
Manchuria  (1862-73) ;  Japan  (1863). 

Bible  and  Other  Societies At  the  same 

time  that  these  distinctively  missionary  organiza- 
tions were  being  formed  others  arose  not  less 
essential  to  their  work.  The  two  societies  for  the 
Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge  (England, 
1698,  and  Scotland,  1709)  have  been  mentioned. 
In  1793  the  Rehgious  Tract  and  Book  Society 
of  Scotland  was  formed,  and  in  1799  the  Reli- 
gious Tract  Society  in  London,  both  undenomi- 
national. Then  came  the  Bible  societies,  the 
British  and  Foreign  (1804),  the  immediate  result 
of  a  local  need,  but  early  applied  to  foreign  work ; 
several  societies  in  Scotland  (1809,  1812,  1829) 
united  in  the  National  Society  of  ScoUand  (i860). 
Medical  missions  were  already  attracting  notice, 
though  the  Edinburgh  Medical  Missionary  So- 
ciety was  not  formed  until  1840.  The  needs  of 
seamen  were  met  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
Sailors'  Society  (1803)  and  the  Missions  to  Sea- 
men (182 1 ).  Interest  in  work  for  the  Jews  de- 
veloped quite  early.  Christian  Friedrich  Frey, 
a  German  Jewish  convert,  educated  in  Berlin  and 


64  GENERAL    HISTORY 

accepted  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  in 
1 80 1,  sought  permission  to  work  among  his  own 
people.  This  was  granted,  and  the  work  so 
developed  that  in  1808  a  separate  committee 
was  formed,  which  became  the  next  year  the 
London  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity 
among  the  Jews.  At  first  this  was  on  the  same 
general  basis  as  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
but  in  181 5  it  became  distinctively  a  Church  of 
England  organization.  It  was  followed  by  a 
number  of  kindred  societies. 

Specialization  of  Work.— For  about  thirty 
years  after  the  largest  of  the  English  Churches 
had  organized  their  missionary  work  there  was 
little  advance  so  far  as  the  formation  of  new 
societies  was  concerned.  All  the  energies  were 
expended  in  united  effort  to  solidify  the  missions 
established.  The  interest,  however,  increased, 
and  with  increased  interest  came  the  impulse  in 
the  larger  bodies  to  branch  out  and  take  up 
special  work,  and  in  the  smaller  bodies  to  have 
their  own  fields  and  not  be  swallowed  up  in  the 
larger  ones.  The  London  Missionary  Society 
was  the  first  to  feel  this  movement.  In  1840  the 
Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists  decided  to  have 
their  own  society,  and  commenced  their  work  in 
the  Khasia  Hills  of  North  India.  A  few  years 
later  (1847)  the  Presbyterians  of  England  did  the 
same.  In  1844,  in  the  Church  of  England,  under 
the  influence  of  Captain  Allen  Gardiner,  th^ 
South  American  Missionary  Society  was  formed 
for  work  among  the  Patagonians  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego.  In  response  to  a  suggestion  by  Living- 
stone and  an  appeal  from  the  Bishop  of  Cape 
Town,  in  i860  the  Universities'  Mission  to  Cen- 
tral Africa  was  established,  and  this  was  followed 
by  a  Cambridge   University  mission  in  India. 


BRITISH   MISSIONS  65 

The  Methodist  Churches  felt  the  impulse,  and  one 
after  another  all  the  more  important  ones  estab- 
lished their  own  societies.  The  Friends  also 
started  work  in  Madagascar  and  Syria.  In  most 
cases  these  were  merely  offshoots  from  or  divisions 
of  existing  organizations,  and  as  manifesting  no 
special  characteristic  require  no  extended  notice. 
Among  them,  however,  are  some  of  importance, 
which  may  in  general  be  gathered  in  three 
classes. 

Aid  Societies.— With  the  development  of 
work  by  different  organizations  and  in  different 
countries  there  arose  a  desire  on  the  part  of 
many  to  share  in  and  help  work  not  immediately 
connected  with  their  branches  of  the  Church. 
As  early  as  1691  the  Christian  Faith  Society  was 
organized  to  administer  an  estate  purchased  with 
funds  left  by  the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle  for  the  as- 
sistance of  general  benevolence,  and  especially 
of  mission  work.  In  181 8  the  London  Society 
in  Aid  of  Moravian  Missions  was  formed,  and 
this  was  followed  by  the  Turkish  (Bible  Lands) 
Missions  Aid  Society ;  the  Foreign  Aid  Society ; 
Indian  Home  Mission  to  the  Santals,  in  aid  of 
the  Danish  mission ;  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and 
Mexican  Church  Aid  Society ;  and  a  number  of 
smaller  ones,  some  general  in  their  relations, 
some  having  specific  ends  in  view. 

Faith  Societies.— As  the  work  of  the  larger 
societies  developed  it  was  inevitable  that  the 
organization  should  become  sohdified,  and  that 
some  at  least  of  the  simple  fervor  of  the  early 
years  should  be  lost.  The  great  amount  of  money 
needed  for  the  conduct  of  the  work  occasioned 
methods  of  raising  funds  which  to  some  seemed 
mechanical.  There  arose  thus  in  the  minds  of 
not  a  few  a  wish  for  less  of  routine,  less  of  rule, 


66  GENERAL    HISTORY 

more  of  spirit.  The  wonderful  work  of  George 
Miiller,  of  Bristol,  also  had  its  effect,  and  men 
began  to  ask  why  missions  might  not  be  con- 
ducted on  the  same  basis.  These  ideas  were 
developed  by  the  Rev.  J.  Hudson  Taylor,  who 
in  1853  went  to  China  in  connection  with  a  so- 
ciety specially  formed  for  the  purpose  of  pushing 
the  work  as  much  as  possible  through  native 
evangelists  far  inland.  He  afterward  carried  on 
an  independent  work,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
became  convinced  that  *'it  was  safe  to  trust  in 
the  promises  of  God  for  the  supply,  in  answer  to 
prayer,  of  all  the  needs,  pecuniary  and  otherwise, 
of  the  work  to  which  He  calls  His  servants." 
He  also  became  much  impressed,  by  fellowship 
with  the  pioneer  missionary,  the  Rev.  W.  C. 
Burns,  with  the  necessity  of  giving  evangelization 
rather  than  education  the  first  place  in  mission 
plans.  Failing  in  health,  Mr.  Taylor  returned  to 
England  in  i860,  but  thought  over  these  topics 
very  earnestly.  He  resolved  to  make  no  public 
appeal,  lest  he  divert  funds  from  the  societies, 
but  simply  to  pray.  In  1862  he  returned  to 
China  with  two  associates,  working  on  this  basis. 
It  became  evident,  however,  that  there  must  be 
some  medium  for  the  transmission  of  funds  and 
some  organization  for  the  selection  of  candidates. 
Accordingly  in  1865  the  China  Inland  Mission 
was  organized,  and  later  auxiliaries  in  Scotland 
and  North  America.  The  society  has  grown 
rapidly,  and  has  attracted  to  itself  some  of  the 
noblest  workers  on  the  mission  field.  Its  work  in 
China  will  be  spoken  of  in  the  succeeding  section. 
It  continues  to  carry  out  the  idea  of  simple  faith 
and  prayer,  although  it  holds  public  meetings 
and  issues  regular  reports.  The  missionaries  are 
very  self-denying  and  very  energetic.     Whether 


feRlTiSii    MISSIONS  67 

the  organization,  at  least  in  its  present  form, 
would  survive  the  loss  of  Mr.  Taylor,  who  has 
been  virtual  if  not  actual  dictator,  is  doubted  by- 
many. 

Somewhat  similar  to  the  China  Inland  Mission 
in  its  general  character  is  the  East  London  Insti- 
tute for  Home  and  Foreign  Missions.  Estab- 
lished as  a  training-school,  it  has  developed  into 
a  missionary  society,  sending  its  representatives 
into  different  fields,  chiefly  in  Africa.  This,  as 
well  as  the  China  Inland  Mission,  is  undenomi- 
national. The  same  idea  is  found  also  in  a 
number  of  other  enterprises,  some  individual, 
some  with  regular  organization. 

Women's  Societies.— There  has  been  no 
more  important  element  in  the  development  of 
mission  work  than  that  furnished  by  the  women's 
societies.  The  first  such  in  England  was  formed 
in  1825  for  promoting  education  in  the  West 
Indies.  In  1834,  in  response  to  an  earnest 
appeal  by  the  Rev.  David  Abeel,  an  American 
missionary  to  China,  the  Society  for  Promoting 
Female  Education  in  the  East  was  established, 
and  is  the  oldest  women's  society  now  at  work. 
It  is  supported  by  members  of  the  Church  of 
England  and  Nonconformists,  and  is  represented 
in  the  Levant,  Persia,  India,  Singapore,  China, 
Japan,  and  Egypt.  The  next  step  was  the 
organization  of  societies  in  connection  with  the 
general  societies;  and  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  the  London  Missionary  Society,  and 
others  have  their  auxiliaries,  which  often  carry  on 
an  independent  yet  joint  work,  as  well  as  assist 
greatly  in  the  gathering  of  funds. 


AMERICAN  MISSIONS 

In  considering  the  development  of  missions  in 
America  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  country 
itself  was  looked  upon  as  mission  ground.  The 
distinction,  now  so  well  known,  between  foreign 
and  home  or  domestic  missions  was  then  unheard 
of.  The  term  was  limited  to  non-Christians,  and 
missions  were  essentially  the  same,  whether  to 
India  and  Africa  or  to  the  aborigines  of  the 
United  States  or  Canada.  Thus  John  Ehot, 
David  Brainerd,  the  Mayhews,  Jonathan  Ed- 
wards, were  missionaries  in  so  far  as  they  dealt 
with  the  Indians.  The  efforts  of  the  English 
societies  among  the  colonists  themselves,  and  of 
the  dissenting  communities  in  England  and 
Holland  in  providing  church  privileges  and  re- 
ligious instruction  for  their  fellows  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Atlantic,  were  parochial  rather  than 
missionary.  They,  indeed,  were  esteemed  of 
great  importance,  and  attracted  considerable 
attention,  but  they  were  essentially  different  from 
the  work  undertaken  by  Carey  and  his  successors 
and  associates.  It  is  probable,  also,  that  the 
very  presence  of  the  Indians  helped  to  dull  the 
appreciation  of  the  needs  of  the  world  at  large.  * 
There  had,  indeed,  been  a  recognition  of  the 


AMERICAN   MISSIONS  69 

need  of  the  foreign  field,  as  was  manifested  in 
an  application  by  two  New  England  ministers  to 
the  Presbyterian  Synod  of  New  York  to  assist  in 
sending  two  negroes  to  carry  on  evangelistic  work 
in  Africa.  The  War  of  the  Revolution,  however, 
prevented  any  carrying  out  of  such  a  plan.  The 
same  cause  operated  to  chill  religious  activity, 
and  it  was  not  until  some  years  later  that  the 
conditions  seemed  favorable  for  the  development 
of  a  missionary  interest. 

Influence  of  England.— The  sailing  of 
Carey  and  the  formation  of  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  aroused  great  interest  in  America, 
and  in  1796  the  New  York  Missionary  Society 
was  formed,  chiefly  by  Presbyterians,  although 
the  Baptist  and  Reformed  Dutch  Churches  were 
represented.  This  turned  its  attention  to  the 
Indians,  collected  funds,  and  employed  a  number 
of  missionaries.  The  next  year  (1797)  another, 
called  the  Northern  Missionary  Society,  was 
formed  for  much  the  same  work.  These  were 
followed  by  others  in  New  England,  two  of  which 
introduced  into  their  constitutions  the  idea  of 
entering  more  remote  countries,  should  oppor- 
tunity offer.  In  1797  copies  of  the  sermons 
preached  by  Dr.  Haweis  and  others  in  connec- 
tion with  the  founding  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society  were  brought  over  to  the  Rev.  Alexander 
McLean,  of  Bristol,  Me.  They  were  reprinted 
and  distributed  widely,  reaching,  among  others, 
the  Rev.  Samuel  Worcester,  afterward  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  American  Board.  The  first  effect 
of  this  awakened  interest  was  seen  in  five  New 
England  societies,  in  several  missionary  maga- 
zines, in  the  collection  of  funds  to  assist  the 
enterprises  started  in  England,  and  in  the  foun- 
dation, in  1806,  of  Andover  Seminary,  with  the 


70  GENERAL   HISTORY 

specific  object  in  view  of  furnishing  preachers 
for  mission  work.  In  that  year  Robert  Ralston, 
for  himself  and  others  in  Philadelphia,  sent  thirty- 
three  hundred  and  fifty-seven  dollars  to  the 
Serampore  mission  in  India,  and  this  was  raised 
by  others  to  the  sum  of  six  thousand  dollars  in 
the  following  year.  At  this  time  the  movement 
was  general  in  all  the  denominations,  but  directed 
still  chiefly  to  the  needs  of  the  Indians.  As  in 
Europe  and  in  England,  the  element  of  individual 
enthusiasm  and  devotion  was  needed  to  start  the 
great  work  of  meeting  the  distinctively  foreign 
need. 

The  American  Board.— That  impulse  was 
furnished  by  a  student  of  Williams  College,  Mas- 
sachusetts, named  Samuel  J.  Mills.  The  story 
of  his  consecration  to  the  cause  of  missions  by 
his  mother,  and  of  his  growing  interest  in  the 
work,  runs  parallel  with  the  lives  of  Carey  and 
Zinzendorf.  Entering  Williams  College  in  1806, 
just  at  the  time  when  the  interest  in  Carey  was 
at  its  height,  he  spent  much  thought  upon  the 
subject,  and  found  several  congenial  companions, 
especially  Gordon  Hall  and  James  Richards. 
The  haystack  meeting,  where  these  formed 
themselves  into  a  mission  band,  marks  one  of  the 
turning-points  in  the  history  of  missions.  From 
Williams  the  three  went  to  Andover  Seminary 
(1809),  where  they  were  joined  by  others,  in- 
cluding Nott,  Rice,  Newell,  and  Judson.  They 
still  pressed  the  topic  of  missions  and  sought  the 
help  and  advice  of  a  number  of  prominent  minis- 
ters, including  the  faculty  of  the  seminary.  The 
result  was  that  at  the  meeting  of  the  General 
Association  of  Congregational  Churches  in  Brad- 
ford, Mass.,  in  the  spring  of  1810,  the  subject  of* 
organizing  a  society  was  taken  up.     The  students 


AMERICAN    MISSIONS  7  I 

— Judson,  Nott,  Newell,  and  Hall— also  pre- 
sented a  paper  setting  forth  their  request  to  be 
sent  on  mission  work.  There  was  some  discus- 
sion, and  on  June  29th  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  was  organ- 
ized. On  the  5th  of  the  following  September 
the  commissioners  met  at  Farmington,  Conn., 
adopted  a  constitution,  and  elected  officers.  Dr. 
Worcester,  the  first  secretary,  prepared  an  address 
to  the  churches,  and  every  effort  was  made  to 
arouse  interest  in  the  four  men  ready  to  start. 
It  seemed  doubtful,  however,  whether  the  neces- 
sary funds  could  be  secured,  and  in  Januar\', 
181 1,  Judson  went  to  England  to  confer  with  the 
London  Missionary  Society  as  to  the  advisabiHty 
of  the  American  churches  cooperating  with  it. 
That  society,  however,  felt  that  it  was  best  for 
them  to  stand  alone,  and  he  returned. 

Development  of  Missions.— At  the  next 
meeting  in  September  the  four  received  their 
appointments,  although  there  was  no  large  sum 
collected,  and  Burma  was  selected  as  the  most 
promising  field.  In  January,  181 2,  an  unex- 
pected opportunity  to  sail  was  offered,  by  special 
effort  six  thousand  dollars  was  collected,  and  in 
February  they,  with  the  addition  of  Mr.  Rice, 
sailed, — Judson  and  Newell  from  Boston,  and 
Hall,  Nott,  and  Rice  from  Philadelphia, — reach- 
ing Calcutta  in  June  and  August.  During  the 
voyage  Judson  changed  his  views  on  infant 
baptism,  and  after  his  landing  was  baptized  at 
Serampore.  Subsequently  Rice  joined  him. 
The  East  India  Company  was  very  firm  in  its 
opposition,  but,  after  many  vicissitudes,  the  other 
three  were  fairly  installed  at  Bombay.  At  the 
same  time  attention  was  directed  to  the  Indians. 
Careful  investigation  was  made,  and  in  1816  a 


*J2  GENERAL   HISTORY 

mission  started  among  the  Cherokees,  afterward 
extended  to  include  a  large  number  of  tribes.  It 
was  characteristic  of  the  times  that  there  should 
be  great  interest  in  the  Pacific,  and  the  story  of 
Henry  Obookiah  (1809),  followed  by  the  arrival 
of  two  more  Hawaiians  at  New  Haven  in  181 3, 
resulted  in  the  estabhshment  (181 7)  of  a  foreign 
mission  school  under  the  care  of  the  Board.  This 
led  to  the  sending  (181 9)  of  the  first  band  of 
missionaries  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  among 
them  being  Hiram  Bingham  and  Asa  Thurston. 
At  the  same  time  attention  was  turned  to  the 
Levant,  and  Pliny  Fisk  and  Levi  Parsons  were 
sent  to  found  a  mission  at  Jerusalem.  The  next 
ten  years  were  chiefly  spent  in  strengthening  the 
work  already  estabHshed,  although  an  opening 
of  work  in  Buenos  Ayres  was  made,  which, 
however,  did  not  develop.  In  1830  Elijah  C. 
Bridgman  and  David  Abeel  sailed  for  Canton, 
and  EH  Smith  and  H.  G.  O.  Dwight  opened  up 
Asia  Minor  and  Persia.  The  next  year  Jonas 
King  started  a  station  at  Athens;  in  1834  an 
exploring  expedition  was  made  to  Patagonia, 
while  the  Gabun  mission  in  West  Africa  was 
commenced,  followed  by  that  to  the  Zulus  in 
South  Africa  in  1835.  Japan  was  entered  in 
1869,  and  in  1872  the  Board  commenced  its 
work  in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  Mexico,  Italy, 
Spain,  and  Austria,  that  in  Italy  being  continued 
only  for  a  time.  Of  the  fifteen  missions  among 
the  Indians  some  were  transferred  to  the  Presby- 
terian Board  and  the  American  Missionary  Asso- 
ciation, and  the  others  were  for  one  cause  or 
another  given  up. 

Baptist    Missions.— The     first    effect    in 
America  of  the  news  of  the  change  of  belief  on 


AMERICAN    MISSIONS  73 

the  part  of  Judson  and  Rice  was  disheartening. 
Its  secondary  result  was  encouraging.  It  stirred 
the  American  Board  to  more  vigorous  action,  and 
it  brought  into  existence  the  American  Baptist 
Missionary  Union.  The  Baptists  had  already 
had  a  large  share  in  the  support  that  went  from 
America  to  Carey,  and  when  the  appeal  came 
from  these  two  Americans  they  promptly  and 
vigorously  responded  to  it.  It  is  significant  of 
the  feeling  of  dependence  on  the  mother  country 
which  existed  generally  in  the  United  States, 
notwithstanding  the  result  of  the  War  of  1812, 
that  these  Baptists  applied  to  the  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Society  just  as  the  Congregationalists 
had  already  applied  to  the  London  Society. 
They  met  with  a  similar  response,  advising  them 
to  supervise  as  well  as  support  their  own  work. 
The  return  of  Mr.  Rice  to  conduct  a  campaign 
for  missions  gave  the  needed  impulse,  and  the 
work  was  fairly  inaugurated  in  1814.  With  the 
exception  of  a  work  in  Liberia,  undertaken  in 
1 82 1  under  the  influence  of  the  African  Coloni- 
zation Society,  but  which  never  assumed  large 
proportions  until  1883,  when  it  was  extended  to 
include  the  Livingstone  mission  on  the  Congo 
founded  by  the  East  London  Institute,  the  so- 
ciety devoted  its  attention  to  Burma  and  the 
adjoining  countries  for  about  twenty  years.  In 
1835  work  was  commenced  among  the  Telugus 
of  India.  About  the  same  time  Macao  was  oc- 
cupied, the  prelude  to  work  in  China,  although 
at  Bangkok  already  there  was  some  work  among 
the  Chinese,  and  in  1872  the  Japan  mission  was 
commenced.  Parallel  with  this  was  the  develop- 
ment of  work  in  Europe,  of  two  kinds :  in  Roman 
Catholic    countries    and    Greece,    regarded    as 


74  GENERAL    HISTORY 

foreign  work,  and  in  Protestant  countries,  as 
Germany,  Sweden,  etc.,  conducted  by  native 
preachers,  but  superintended  by  the  society. 

Outgrowths.— The  American  Board  and  the 
American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  were  not 
only  the  pioneers,  but  they  represented  at  that 
time  almost  the  entire  body  of  Christians,  except 
the  Methodists  and  Episcopalians.  The  Ameri- 
can Board  included  among  its  supporters  the 
Congregationalists,  Presbyterians,  and  Reformed, 
both  Dutch  and  German,  while  all  Baptists, 
North  and  South,  joined  in  the  Missionary 
Union.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  founders  of 
the  American  Board  contemplated  the  support 
of  others  than  Congregationahsts.  At  the  sec- 
ond meeting  of  the  Board,  however,  a  proposition 
was  made  to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  for  the  organization  of  a  similar 
society  with  which  the  Board  might  cooperate. 
The  Assembly  declined  to  do  this,  but  heartily 
indorsed  the  Board  and  recommended  its  support 
by  Presbyterians.  At  the  next  meeting  eight 
commissioners  were  added  to  represent  the  Pres- 
byterian Church,  and  later  one  came  in  from  the 
Associate  Reformed  Church  and  others  from  the 
Reformed  Dutch  and  German  Churches.  In 
1825  a  proposition  was  made  by  the  United 
Foreign  Missionary  Society  (Presbyterian), 
formed  in  1817  for  work  among  the  Indians, 
for  union  with  the  American  Board.  This  was 
cordially  indorsed  by  the  General  Assembly,  and 
for  twelve  years  the  Board  represented  officially 
the  Presbyterian  Church.  In  1837,  on  the  sepa- 
ration between  the  Old  and  New  Schools,  the 
former  withdrew  and  adopted  an  old  local  organ-^ 
ization,  while  the  latter  remained  with  the  Board 
until  1870,  when  the  two  branches  of  the  Pres- 


AMERICAN    MISSIONS  75 

byterian  Church  reunited.  In  1857  the  Re- 
formed Dutch  Church  estabh'shed  its  own  board  ; 
the  next  year  the  Associate  Reformed  Presby- 
terians became  a  part  of  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  took  up  a  distinct  work;  and  in 
1865  the  Reformed  German  Church  did  the 
same  ;  so  that  since  1870  the  Board  has  practically 
represented  Congregationahsts  alone.  Similarly 
the  Southern  Baptist  Convention  was  formed  out 
of  the  Missionary  Union  in  1845.  The  Freewill 
Baptist  Society  (1835)  was  the  direct  outcome  of 
the  relations  between  some  missionaries  of  the 
Missionary  Union  in  India  and  representatives 
of  the  General  Baptist  Missionary  Society  of 
England.  So,  also,  later,  the  different  Methodist 
boards  grew  up  in  the  great  Methodist  body. 

Presbyterian  Missions. — The  first  mission 
work  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  as  a  church  was 
directed  exclusively  to  the  evangelizing  of  the 
Indians.  Reference  has  already  been  made  to 
two  societies  organized  in  New  York  in  1796 
and  1797.  About  the  same  time  another,  the 
Western  Missionary  Society,  was  organized  in 
Pittsburg.  In  1802  the  General  Assembly  took 
up  the  matter  and  called  for  collections  and 
volunteers,  and  for  several  years  there  was  con- 
siderable done  in  different  sections.  In  181 8  the 
United  Foreign  Missionary  Society  was  formed, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  General  Assembly, 
bringing  together  the  various  Presbyterian  and 
Reformed  bodies.  This,  however,  did  not  enter 
the  foreign  field,  leaving  that  for  the  American 
Board.  In  1 826  it  was  discontinued,  the  General 
Assembly  giving  its  full  indorsement  and  cooper- 
ation to  that  Board.  A  number,  however,  felt 
that  the  church  idea  had  been  somewhat  lost 
sight  of,  and  in  1831,  apparently  on  the  basis  of 


76  GENERAL    HISTORY 

the  Western  Missionary  Society,  already  in  exis- 
tence, the  Western  Foreign  Missionary  Society 
was  formed,  under  the  immediate  supervision  of 
the  Synod  of  Pittsburg.  This  society  undertook 
three  missions,  to  western  Africa,  northern  India, 
and  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  1833  all  three 
fields  were  occupied. 

Old  and  New  School.— A  strong  feeling, 
however,  continued  to  exist  that  the  General 
Assembly  should  have  its  own  board  of  missions, 
and  in  1835  a  proposition  was  made  to  form  one 
and  transfer  to  it  the  work  of  the  Western  For- 
eign Missionary  Society.  That  was,  however,  de- 
feated, under  the  influence  of  those  who  felt  that 
the  American  Board  was  well  representing  the 
Presbyterian  as  well  as  other  churches,  and  that 
united  action  was  more  efficient.  In  1837  came 
the  division  of  the  Church,  and  the  Old-school 
Assembly  carried  out  the  plan,  formed  its  own 
board,  and  took  up  the  work  of  the  Pittsburg 
society.  The  New-school  Assembly  continued 
to  work  through  the  American  Board  until  1870, 
when  the  reunion  of  the  two  branches  made  it 
seem  best  that  all  should  work  in  one  board. 
Partly  that  the  withdrawal  of  these  churches  from 
the  American  Board  might  not  leave  too  heavy 
a  burden  upon  it,  and  partly  that  their  share  in 
the  estabhshment  of  the  missions  might  receive 
full  recognition,  the  Persian,  Syrian,  and  Gabun 
(West  Africa)  missions  and  several  Indian  mis- 
sions were  transferred  to  the  Presbyterian  BoaM. 
In  addition  to  the  Africa  (Liberia)  and  India 
missions,  received  in  1837,  the  Old-school  board 
took  up  work  in  China  the  same  year.  Thre£ 
years  later  (1840)  it  entered  Siam,  from  which 
grew  the  Laos  mission  (1867).  In  1853  a  mis- 
sion was  commenced  in  Buenos  Ayres,  but  after- 


AMERICAN    MISSIONS  77 

ward  given  up;  and  in  1856  Colombia  and  in 
1859  Brazil  were  occupied.  This  last  year  also 
saw  the  commencement  of  the  Japan  mission. 
Since  the  reunion,  missions  have  been  estabhshed 
in  Mexico  (1872),  Chile  (1873),  Guatemala 
(1882),  and  Korea  (1884).  The  influx  of  Chinese 
into  this  country  led  to  the  estabhshment  of  a 
distinct  work  for  them  in  San  Francisco  and  New 
York.  The  missions  to  the  Indians  were  gradu- 
ally dropped  or  transferred  to  the  home  board. 

Other  Presbyterian  Missions.— The  de- 
velopment of  these  was  largely  connected  with 
the  influences  already  noted.  As  early  as  1818 
the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Synod  (Covenanters) 
considered  the  subject  of  missions,  though  they 
did  not  enter  the  field  till  1843,  ^^  ^^st  in  the 
West  Indies,  then,  and  now  solely,  in  Syria, 
among  the  pagan  Nusairiyeh.  In  1836  the 
General  Synod  had  established  their  present 
mission  in  India.  The  Cumberland  Presbyte- 
rians started  work  for  the  Indians  in  1820,  and 
on  the  foreign  field  in  1857,  though  their  present 
fields,  Japan  and  Mexico,  were  entered  later. 
The  United  Presbyterian  Church  took  up,  in 
1858,  the  work  of  the  Associate  Presbyterian 
Church  in  India,  commenced  in  1854,  and  now 
carries  on  an  important  work  also  in  Egypt, 
while  its  next  of  kin,  the  Associate  Reformed 
Synod  of  the  South,  occupies  Mexico.  The 
Southern  Presbyterian  Church,  the  outcome  of 
the  Civil  War,  has  its  own  board,  and  commenced 
its  work  in  China  in  1866,  extending  to  Italy, 
Brazil,  Japan,  Congo,  Mexico,  and  Korea.  So, 
also,  the  interest  of  the  two  Reformed  bodies, 
Dutch  and  German,  was  parallel  with  that  of  the 
larger  denominations,  as  is  shown  by  their  share 
in  the  support  of  the  American  Board.     When 


78  GENERAL    HISTORY 

they  felt  it  wise  to  withdraw  for  the  purpose  of 
better  developing  their  own  resources,  the  former 
(1857)  took  the  Amoy  (China)  and  Arcot  (India) 
missions,  with  which  it  had  been  so  closely  iden- 
tified, and  added  Japan  and  Arabia,  while  the 
German  Board  took  Japan  as  its  special  field. 

Methodist  Missions.— The  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  has  never  made  a  sharp  distinction 
between  home  and  foreign  work.  Both  branches 
are,  and  have  been  from  the  beginning,  under  the 
care  of  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Church, 
which  was  organized  in  181 9,  under  the  same 
impulse  that  operated  with  the  other  denomina- 
tions. Already  attention  had  been  turned  to  the 
needs  of  the  Indians,  and  the  proclamation  of 
President  Monroe  (18 19)  providing  for  the  return 
of  recaptured  slaves  to  Africa,  under  the  care  of 
the  United  States  government,  led  to  an  indi- 
vidual Methodist  mission  in  Sherbro,  afterward 
removed  to  Liberia.  At  the  same  time  work 
was  commenced  for  the  French  inhabitants  of 
the  South,  and  extended  among  the  Indians. 
This  work  took  the  full  strength  of  the  society, 
which  did  not  begin  foreign  missions  until  1833, 
when  the  little  Methodist  colony  at  Monrovia 
was  strengthened  by  the  arrival  of  Melville  B. 
Cox,  the  first  foreign  missionary  of  the  Church. 
A  beginning  made,  the  progress  was  rapid.  In 
1835  ^^^  Brazil  mission  was  established,  followed 
by  other  South  American  fields,  the  latest  being 
Paraguay.  The  first  Methodist  missionaries  to 
China  sailed  in  1847  ;  then  followed  Bulgaria 
(1852),  India  (1856),  Japan  (1872),  Mexico 
(1873),  Korea  (1885),  and  Malaysia  (1889)^ 
The  society  also  commenced  work  in  Germany 
in  1844,  which  led  to  work  in  Norway,  Sweden, 
Denmark,  and  Italy.     Closely  connected  with 


AMERICAN    MISSIONS  79 

the  Missionary  Society,  but  independent  of  its 
control,  and  subject  only  to  the  General  Confer- 
ence, is  the  wide-spread  work  of  Bishop  William 
Taylor,  known  as  self-supporting  missions,  in 
Africa  and  South  America.  The  tendency  of 
these  has  been  toward  absorption  by  the  Mission- 
ary Society.  On  the  separation  of  the  Southern 
branch  of  the  Methodist  Church  (1844),  ^  sepa- 
rate Board  of  Missions  was  organized,  which  has 
developed  work  in  China  (1846),  Mexico  (1872), 
Brazil  (187  5),  and  Japan  (1885).  At  the  same  time 
the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  inaugu- 
rated the  work  now  being  developed  in  the  West 
Indies  and  West  Africa.  The  Methodist  Protes- 
tant Church  up  to  1882  contributed  its  assistance 
to  other  boards,  especially  the  Woman's  Union 
Missionary  Society,  but  then  established  its  own 
mission  in  Japan. 

Other  Societies.— Missionary  interest  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  was  aroused  by  an 
appeal  from  the  Church  Missionary  Society  of 
England  in  181 7,  and  resulted  in  the  organization 
(1820)  of  a  society  which  later  (1835)  developed 
into  the  Domestic  and  Foreign  Missionary  So- 
ciety. The  first  fields  occupied  (1830)  were 
Liberia  and  Greece  ;  China  followed  in  1835,  Ja- 
pan in  1859,  and  Hayti  in  186 1.  In  a  somewhat 
similar  way  arose  the  missionary  interest  among 
the  Lutherans.  Dr.  Rhenius,  a  pupil  of  Janicke 
in  Berlin,  sent  to  India  by  the  Church  Mission- 
ary Society,  and  a  most  successful  missionary, 
severed  his  connection  with  that  society  because 
it  required  episcopal  ordination,  and  appealed 
to  the  Lutherans  of  America  (1832)  to  support 
him.  The  General  Synod  had  not  long  been 
organized,  but  it  responded  by  the  organization 
of    the    German    Foreign    Missionary    Society, 


8o  GENERAL    HISTORY 

hoping  to  get  the  support  of  the  various  bodies 
of  Lutherans.  This  became  afterward  the  Board 
of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  General  Synod.  Be- 
fore arrangements  could  be  completed,  Dr. 
Rhenius  died,  and  a  proposal  was  made  of  union 
with  the  American  Board.  That  was  given  up, 
and  in  1843  the  mission  at  Guntur,  already 
started  as  a  private  enterprise,  was  taken  by  the 
board,  which  (1859)  also  established  the  Muhlen- 
berg mission  in  Liberia.  In  1869  the  General 
Council  commenced  work  in  South  India.  The 
other  bodies  have  assisted  somewhat,  but  have 
not  developed  their  own  work. 

The  Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society  of 
the  Disciples,  or  Christians,  organized  in  1849, 
has  had  a  remarkable  development,  corresponding 
to  the  growth  of  the  denomination  at  home, 
and  has  missionaries  in  Turkey,  India,  China, 
Japan,  and  the  West  Indies,  as  well  as  in  the 
countries  of  Europe.  The  United  Brethren  in 
Christ  have  work  in  West  Africa  (1855)  and  in 
China  (1889).  The  Friends  carry  on  their  mis- 
sion work,'  in  connection  with  the  Friends  of 
England,  chiefly  in  Syria.  The  Universalists  in 
1890  commenced  a  work  in  Japan,  and  about 
the  same  time  the  Unitarians  did  the  same,  the 
former  showing  much  more  of  permanent  char- 
acter. Mention  should  be  made  of  the  American 
and  Foreign  Christian  Union,  organized  in  1849, 
especially  for  work  in  Roman  Catholic  countries, 
which  afterward  disbanded,  giving  its  missions 
in  South  America  and  Europe  to  the  American 
and  Presbyterian  boards.  The  American  Mis- 
sionary Association  (Congregational),  now  dis- 
tinctively a  home  society,  engaged  for  a  time  in 
work  for  the  negroes  in  Africa. 

The  American  Bible  Society  (1816)  owed  its 


AMERICAN    MISSIONS  8l 

origin  to  the  same  influences  that  produced  the 
American  Board,  and  very  largely  to  the  same 
man,  S.  J.  Mills,  who  inaugurated  so  much  of 
the  mission  enterprise  of  the  United  States. 
Already  (1809)  a  New  Jersey  Bible  Society  had 
been  formed,  and  its  president,  Elias  Boudinot, 
responded  to  an  appeal  by  Mills  for  a  national 
society.  In  its  organization  thirty-five  local  so- 
cieties of  one  kind  or  another  united,  and  within 
a  year  eighty-four  auxiliaries  had  been  added. 
It  has  been  a  most  energetic  and  effective  so- 
ciety, both  at  home  and  abroad,  joining  hands 
with  other  similar  societies,  as  well  as  with  the  mis- 
sionary organizations,  and  estabhshing  agencies 
in  South  America  and  Asia.  At  about  the  same 
time  various  tract  societies  in  New  York  and 
New  England,  formed  on  the  basis  of  the  English 
societies,  united  to  form  in  1825  the  American 
Tract  Society  for  the  publication  and  distribution 
at  home  and  abroad  of  religious  tracts  and  books. 
It  has  been  followed  by  several  others  connected 
with  the  different  denominations.  The  same  in- 
fluences that  occasioned  the  forming  of  the  China 
Inland  Mission  in  England  were  felt  in  the 
United  States.  A  number  of  individual  missions 
have  been  started  at  different  times  and  in  differ- 
ent places.  Two  organizations  have  also  gained 
considerable  size.  The  Kansas  Sudan  Mission 
is  the  smallest,  but  has  sent  several  missionaries. 
The  International  Missionary  Alhance,  formed 
(1887)  by  the  Rev.  A.  B.  Simpson,  in  connection 
with  a  faith-cure  estabhshment,  and  since  de- 
veloped into  the  Christian  and  Missionary  Alli- 
ance, has  a  large  force  of  missionaries  in  Africa, 
India,  China,  and  South  America. 

Associate  Movements.— Springing  out  of 
the  movements  already  noted  in  the  different 


82  GENERAL    HISTORY 

church  organizations,  and  developing  until  in 
some  cases  they  have  almost  overshadowed  them, 
have  been  the  organizations  of  women  and  young 
people.  From  the  very  first  women  had  a  large 
share  in  the  work,  but  it  was  not  until  compara- 
tively late  that  that  share  became  in  a  degree 
independent.  The  first  impulse  toward  distinc- 
tive societies  for  women  was  given  by  the  Rev. 
David  Abeel  on  his  return  from  China,  and  re- 
sulted in  England  in  the  formation  of  several 
societies  before  1840.  America,  however,  was 
slower,  and  it  was  not  until  1861  that  the 
Woman's  Union  Missionary  Society,  undenomi- 
national, was  organized,  which  still  carries  on 
work  in  India,  China,  and  Japan.  Seven  years 
later  the  Woman's  Board  of  Missions  in  connec- 
tion with  the  American  Board  was  organized, 
and  since  then  the  growth  has  been  rapid,  until, 
in  one  form  or  another,  the  women  have  a  sepa- 
rate organization  in  every  denomination  that  does 
foreign  work.  Sometimes  they  are  subordinate 
to  and  included  in  the  general  boards ;  in  other 
cases  they  carry  on  a  parallel  and  associated  but 
distinct  work. 

Student  Movements.  — From  the  time  of 
the  little  society  at  Williams  College,  transferred 
to  Andover  Seminary,  it  was  the  custom  in  most 
of  the  seminaries  and  several  colleges  to  maintain 
similar  societies  or  bands.  With  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations, 
especially  in  their  relation  to  students,  there 
came  also  a  development  of  the  missionary  idea.  ^ 
The  Central  Committee  (1854)  afterward  became 
the  International  Committee,  and  the  first  World's 
Conference  (1855)  led  the  way  to  world-wide 
interests.  It  was  twenty  years  before  the  col- 
legiate department  was   fairly  inaugurated,  but 


AMERICAN    MISSIONS  S;^ 

after  that  (1877)  the  advance  was  rapid.  First 
came  the  Interseminary  Missionary  Alliance 
(1880),  gathering  the  scattered  bands  into  an 
organization.  Then  (1886)  at  a  college  students' 
conference  at  Northfield,  Mass.,  the  Student  Vol- 
unteer Movement  was  established,  one  hundred 
of  the  two  hundred  and  fifty-one  men  present 
pledging  themselves  to  the  foreign  field  should 
Providence  permit.  The  growth  of  this  organi- 
zation has  been  wonderful,  until  it  has  touched 
almost  every  collection  of  students  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  It  has  extended,  too,  to 
Europe,  and,  working  in  harmony  with  the  Col- 
legiate Young  Men's  Christian  Association  de- 
partment, organized  in  1895  the  World's  Student 
Christian  Federation.  In  1896  there  was  an 
international  conference  in  Liverpool  which 
showed  the  extent  of  the  work.  There  have  also 
been  visits  to  the  universities  and  colleges  of 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia,  which  have 
opened  up  fields  of  work  of  great  interest.  In 
all  this  the  Christian  Endeavor,  Epworth  League, 
and  kindred  societies  have  had  a  valuable  share. 
Canadian  Missions.— The  distinctive  mis- 
sionary activity  of  the  Protestant  Churches  of 
Canada  was  somewhat  late  in  developing,  owing 
to  two  facts :  the  great  demand  upon  them  in 
their  own  country,  and  their  close  proximity  to  and 
intimate  relation  with  the  kindred  and  stronger 
churches  in  the  United  States.  The  area  occu- 
pied by  them  has  been,  and  still  is,  small  in  com- 
parison to  the  great  unoccupied  territory.  A 
missionary  society  was  formed  in  the  Methodist 
Church  in  1824,  but  it  occupied  itself  solely  with 
work  among  the  Indians  and  French  until  1873, 
when  it  estabhshed  its  work  in  Japan,  still  its  only 
foreign  field.     The  Presbyterians  worked  chiefly 


84  GENERAL    HISTORY 

through  their  fellows  in  the  United  States,  al- 
though different  communities  sent  individual 
representatives  to  the  South  Seas,  India,  China, 
and  the  West  Indies.  On  the  union  of  the  differ- 
ent bodies  in  one  General  Assembly  in  1875,  a 
special  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  was  appointed, 
their  different  missions  were  adopted  and  devel- 
oped, and  a  vigorous  work  in  Canada  itself  was 
carried  on.  So,  also,  the  Baptists  organized  a 
society  in  1838,  but  continued  to  work  through 
those  in  England  and  the  United  States  until 
1873,  when  the  Maritime  Provinces  established 
their  own  work,  followed  by  Ontario  and  Quebec. 
The  two  societies  still  exist,  but  are  practically  one 
on  the  field  among  the  Telugus  of  India.  The 
Congregational  churches  joined  with  the  Ameri- 
can Board  from  1874  to  1881,  when  their  own 
society  was  formed  and  a  Canadian  Congrega- 
tional mission  established  in  West  Africa. 


VI 

EUROPEAN  AND  OTHER    MISSIONS 

The  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  in 
Europe  a  barren  period  for  missions.  The 
Danish-Halle  mission  dwindled  and  nearly  col- 
lapsed, and  even  the  Moravians  barely  held  their 
own.  As  always,  however,  there  was  a  leaven 
of  interest.  In  1780,  in  the  University  of  Basle, 
really  more  German  than  Swiss,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  Dr.  Urlsperger,  who  had  recently 
visited  England,  there  was  founded  a  German 
Christian  society,  which  undertook  to  gather  in- 
formation in  regard  to  the  general  condition  of 
Christianity.  As  soon  as  the  London  Missionary 
Society  was  formed  the  Basle  Society  entered 
into  communication  with  it,  and  in  1801  a  sec- 
retary, on  going  to  London  to  care  for  a  German 
congregation,  became  a  director  in  the  English 
society.  At  about  the  same  time  a  pious  preacher 
in  Berlin,  Janicke,  founded  a  school  for  the 
training  of  missionary  laborers.  From  this  school 
went  a  large  number  of  the  missionaries  of  the 
London  and  Church  Missionary  societies,  among 
them  Rhenius  (afterward  the  inspirer  of  Lutheran 
missions  in  America),  Nylander,  Giitzlaff,  and 
others. 

Basle  Society.— In  181 5,  largely  under  the 
85 


86  GENERAL    HISTORY 

influence  of  the  Germans  in  London,  the  Basle 
Society  was  formed  into  a  missionary  society. 
Its  first  work  was  to  found  a  special  training- 
school  for  missionaries,  who  were  sent  to  the  field 
under  one  or  another  of  the  English  societies ; 
but  in  1 82 1  it  commenced  its  own  work,  choosing 
Russia  as  its  first  field,  from  which  it  was,  how- 
ever, forced  to  retire,  as  others  had  been.  It 
added  to  its  list  of  missions  West  Africa  (1827), 
afterward  enlarged  by  the  German  rule  of  the 
Cameruns,  India  (1834),  and  China  (1846).  The 
society  is  undenominational,  its  missionaries 
going  out  under  the  auspices  of  the  Reformed, 
Lutheran,  or  Free  Churches,  as  the  case  may  be. 
It  develops  more  than  the  English  or  American 
societies  the  industrial  element,  has  a  large  pro- 
portion of  artisans  among  its  missionaries,  and 
derives  a  considerable  part  of  the  support,  espe- 
cially of  certain  missions,  from  commercial 
transactions.  Its  school  has  furnished  a  large 
number  of  missionaries  for  other  fields  than  its 
own,  and  it  has  sent  individual  workers  to  places 
where  it  has  no  organized  mission. 

Berlin  and  Rhenish  Societies.— The 
Janicke  school  in  Berlin  continued  to  be  promi- 
nent until  its  founder's  death,  in  1827.  Partly 
under  his  influence,  partly  under  that  of  Basle, 
ten  prominent  ministers,  including  the  well-known 
Professors  Neander  and  Tholuck,  met  to  organize 
a  missionary  society,  in  the  hope  of  joining  forces 
with  the  school.  That  proved  impracticable, 
and  in  1824  they  completed  their  plans  knd 
founded  the  Berhn  Missionary  Society.  For  a 
time  they  simply  assisted  other  societies,  but  after 
Janicke's  death  secured  his  school,  and  in  1834 
commenced  their  own  work.  They  made  several 
experiments,  but  their  South  African  (Transvaal 


EUROPEAN    AND    OTHER    MISSIONS  87 

and  Bechuanaland)  mission  has  been  successful, 
as  has  also  their  China  mission,  which  owed  its 
origin  to  the  visit  to  Germany  in  1849  of  Dr. 
Giitzlaff,  a  Janicke  student,  who  had  gone  out 
under  the  Netherlands  Society,  but  had  estab- 
lished himself  in  Macao  as  physician  and  official, 
and  had  shared  with  Dr.  Morrison,  Medhurst, 
and  others  the  first  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
Chinese.  The  Rhenish  Missionary  Society  owed 
its  origin  to  a  Mission  Prayer  Union  established 
in  1799  by  a  few  ministers  in  Elberfeld,  which 
was  gradually  extended  until  four  different  asso- 
ciations were  united  in  Barmen  under  that  name. 
The  new  organization  commenced  work  in  South 
Africa  (Namaqualand)  at  once,  and  afterward 
extended  to  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  Nias,  in  the 
East  Indies. 

Confessionalism.— These  three  societies 
were  established  on  a  broad,  unsectarian  basis. 
As,  however,  the  confessional  spirit  increased  in 
strength  there  began  to  arise  a  demand  for  other 
organizations.  Then  the  North  German  Society 
(1836),  formed  from  the  union  of  a  number  of 
organizations  in  northern  Germany,  and  which, 
like  the  Basle  and  Berlin  societies,  embraced  both 
Lutherans  and  Reformed,  wasspht  and  almost  de- 
stroyed by  the  discussion.  Some  of  its  supporters 
went  to  the  Leipsic  Society,  others  to  the  Her- 
mannsburg,  while  the  remainder,  moving  to 
Bremen,  found  relief  from  the  trouble,  and  de- 
veloped a  successful  work  in  West  Africa,  after 
attempts  in  India  and  New  Zealand.  The  Leip- 
sic Missionary  Society  (1836)  had  its  origin  in  a 
small  society  at  Dresden  (1819),  but  owed  its 
development  to  the  energy  and  enthusiasm  of 
Dr.  Graul,  an  ardent  Lutheran,  who  took  issue 
with  the  Basle  idea  of  individual  conversion,  and 


88  GENERAL    HISTORY 

believed  in  a  greater  effort  for  a  national  move- 
ment along  distinctively  Lutheran  lines.  At- 
tempts were  made  to  start  work  in  Australia  and 
North  America,  but  the  society's  chief  work  has 
been  in  India,  where  it  fell  heir  to  the  Tamil 
work  of  the  Danish- Halle  mission  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  The  same  year  saw  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Gossner  (Berlin  II.)  mission 
in  India,  partly  because  of  the  confessional 
discussion,  partly  because  Gossner,  a  director 
of  the  Berlin  Society,  felt  that  the  idea  of  self- 
support  of  missionaries  on  the  field  should  be 
carried  further.  He  established  a  school,  which 
sent  out  in  all  one  hundred  and  forty-one  mis- 
sionaries, a  number  of  them  to  work  with  other 
societies.  His  own  work  was  among  the  Kols  of 
India,  and,  after  the  first  year  of  discourage- 
ments, was  marvelously  successful.  Since  Goss- 
ner's  death  the  mission  has  been  put  upon  the 
basis  of  an  ordinary  missionary  society,  and  some 
of  the  distinctive  ideas  of  its  founder  have  dis- 
appeared. 

Other  German  Societies.— The  Her- 
mannsburg  Mission  Society  (1849),  ^^^^  ^^e 
Gossner,  was  due  to  the  intense  conviction  of  a 
single  man,  Pastor  Ludwig  Harms,  of  a  village 
in  Hanover.  An  earnest  Lutheran,  and  opposed 
to  waiving  in  any  degree  the  confessional  idea, 
he  also  was  dominated  by  the  conception  of  the 
value  of  mission  colonies,  and  believed  in  sending 
large  numbers  of  missionary  emigrants  to'tstab- 
lish  a  sort  of  missionary  community.  As  the 
result  of  experience  the  peculiarities  have  dis- 
appeared, and  the  missions  in  South  Africa  and 
among  the  Telugus  of  India  are  not  essentially 
different  from  others,  and  receive  the  cordial 
support  of  both  the  Free  and  State  Churches  of 


EUROPEAN    AND    OTHER    MISSIONS  89 

Hanover.  The  Breklum  Society  (1882)  also 
originated  in  a  mission  training-school,  estab- 
lished by  a  pastor  in  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
provinces,  and  does  for  them  what  the  Her- 
mannsburg  Society  does  for  Hanover.  Its  mis- 
sion work  is  in  the  Jaipur  territory  of  India.  The 
St.  Chrischona,  or  Pilgrim  mission,  as  it  has  been 
called,  was  started  (1840)  in  Basle,  with  the  idea 
of  establishing  a  series  of  mission  stations  in 
Northeast  Africa,  and  thus  reaching  the  Moham- 
medans of  Egypt,  the  Sudan,  and  Abyssinia.  It 
kept  missionaries  for  a  time  in  Gallaland,  but 
for  some  years  has  been  simply  a  training  insti- 
tution, many  of  its  students  going  into  home 
mission  work.  The  Kaiserswerth  deaconesses 
really  do  a  foreign  mission  work  of  great  value, 
and  there  are  three  women's  societies — one  gen- 
eral, one  for  China,  and  one  for  Jerusalem.  There 
are  also  a  few  other  organizations,  but  none  of 
special  significance. 

Danish  Missions.— The  control  of  the 
Tamil  mission  by  the  State  Church  in  Denmark 
gave  the  free  and  more  liberal  element  little  share 
in  missions.  With  the  revival  of  interest  which 
started  in  England  and  extended  to  Germany,  a 
Danish  pastor.  Bone  Falck  Ronne,  felt  the  in- 
fluence, and  in  1821  the  Danish  Missionary 
Society,  representing  the  Free  Churches,  was 
founded.  It  commenced  by  assisting  the  work 
in  Greenland  and  the  Moravian  and  Basle  mis- 
sionaries, and  some  Danes  had  already  gone  to 
foreign  fields  under  English  societies.  The  only 
organized  mission  carried  on  by  the  society  is 
the  new  Tamil  mission  in  India,  taken  up  on  the 
appeal  of  a  Danish  missionary,  Ochs,  who  left 
the  Leipsic  Society  on  account  of  the  caste  ques- 
tion.    Other  Danish  work  has  developed  under 


9©  GENERAL    HISTORY 

the  Low-church  or  Grundvig  party,  including  the 
Loventhal  mission  in  India  (1872),  a  branch  of 
the  Tamil  mission,  and  missions  to  the  Santals 
and  Red  Karens.  These  last  are  not  distinctively 
Danish,  but  receive  support  largely  from  other 
countries. 

Norway  and  Sweden.— Norwegian  and 
Swedish  missions  were  the  children  of  the  Danish 
missions.  The  effort  of  Gustavus  Vasa  to  send 
missionaries  to  the  Lapps  has  been  noted,  and 
throughout  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies there  were  various  mission  enterprises, 
including  that  of  Egede  in  Greenland.  With 
the  early  part  of  the  present  century  interest 
revived.  In  1818  a  Swedish  missionary  paper 
was  founded,  and  1826  saw  the  founding  of  the 
first  Norwegian  society,  followed  in  1829  by  one 
in  Sweden,  both  little  more  than  auxiharies  to  the 
German  societies;  but  in  1835  the  Swedish  Mis- 
sionary Society  was  formed,  followed  in  1842  by 
the  Norwegian  Missionary  Society.  The  Swedish 
Society,  a  voluntary  society,  was  followed  in 
1856  by  the  Evangelical  National  Society,  really 
a  combination  of  a  large  number  of  smaller  or- 
ganizations, and,  in  1868,  by  the  establishment 
of  the  Church  mission,  under  the  patronage  of 
the  State  Church.  The  Waldenstromians  have 
also  their  own  mission  work.  The  fields  occupied 
by  the  Swedish  societies  have  been  Gallaland  in 
East  Africa,  Zululand  in  South  Africa,  central 
India  (the  Gonds),  southern  India  (the  Tamils), 
and  China.  A  number  of  Swedish  missionaries 
have  also  gone  out  in  connection  with  American 
and  English  societies,  especially  to  Central  Africa 
and  China.  They  have  done  excellent  pioneering 
work.  In  Norway,  also,  the  Norwegian  Society 
was  followed  by  others,  but  few  of  importance, 


EUROPEAN    AND    OTHER    MISSIONS  9 1 

the  chief  work  being  that  of  the  parent  society 
in  Zululand  (1844)  and  Madagascar  (1866). 
This  last  has  been  the  best  known.  In  1889  a 
Norwegian  mission  to  China  was  estabhshed. 
The  Norwegian  Missionary  Society,  hke  the 
Swedish,  is  a  voluntary  society,  and  there  arose, 
as  before  in  Sweden,  a  wish  for  a  State  Church 
mission.  In  1872  Schreuder,  the  father  of  Nor- 
wegian missions,  and  through  whose  influence 
chiefly  the  society  had  been  formed,  yielded  to 
this  desire,  and,  taking  a  few  of  the  South  Africa 
stations,  established  a  Church  mission,  which  has 
been  and  still  is  known  as  Schreuder's  mission. 

Dutch  Missions.— What  Carey  was  to 
English  missions.  Mills  to  American,  and  Schreu- 
der to  Norwegian,  Vanderkemp  was  to  Dutch 
missions.  A  graduate  of  the  University  of  Ley- 
den,  a  trained  soldier,  hnguist,  and  physician,  on 
hearing  the  appeal  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society,  he  offered  his  services,  and  was  the 
founder  of  South  African  missions.  Before 
starting,  however,  he  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
Netherlands  Missionary  Society  (1797),  the  pa- 
rent of  a  good  number  of  Dutch  societies.  The 
first  work  was  at  home,  but  soon  attention  was 
turned  abroad.  It  is  significant,  however,  of  the 
influence  of  the  Dutch  colonial  management,  and 
even  of  the  State  Church,  that  the  first  mission- 
aries to  Ceylon  were  sent  under  the  direction  of 
the  London  Society,  though  supported  in  Hol- 
land. In  181 2  Java  and  the  Moluccas  were 
occupied,  and  two  years  later  Ceram,  Celebes, 
and  other  places.  Then  French  rule  over  Hol- 
land ceasing,  the  society  organized  an  indepen- 
dent work.  In  1826  it  sent  Dr.  Giitzlaff  to  China, 
thus  introducing  work  in  that  empire.  For  nearly 
half  a  century  the   Netherlands  Society  stood 


92  GENERAL    HISTORY 

alone,  and  followed  the  general  course  of  the 
churches  in  Europe  in  yielding  to  the  rationalistic 
spirit.  Accordingly  from  1846  a  number  of 
societies  arose,  mostly  in  protest  against  this  and 
in  favor  of  a  more  evangeHstic  type  of  missionary 
work.  These  were  the  Ermelo  Society  (1846), 
the  Doopsgezinde  or  Mennonite  Society  (1849), 
the  Java  Committee  (1856),  the  Dutch  Mission- 
ary Society  (1858),  the  Utrecht  Society  (1859), 
the  Dutch  Reformed  Society  (1859),  and  the 
Christian  Reformed  Society  (i860).  All  of  these 
conduct  missions  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies. 

French  Societies.  — Under  the  peculiar 
conditions  in  France  at  the  close  of  the  eigh- 
teenth and  the  beginning  of  the  present  century 
it  was  scarcely  to  be  expected  that  missions 
should  find  a  foothold.  Whatever  of  evangelical 
faith  there  was  had  sufficient  to  do  to  maintain 
itself.  With  the  overthrow  of  the  empire,  how- 
ever, the  Protestant  Church  rallied,  and  about 
1820  there  were  several  missionary  committees 
in  Alsace  and  the  south  of  France  and  in  Paris. 
These  united,  in  1822,  in  the  Societe  des  Mis- 
sions Evangeliques,  often  known  as  the  Paris 
Evangelical  Society.  As  in  the  case  of  other 
European  societies,  one  of  the  first  things  was 
the  forming  of  a  training  institute  in  Paris  in 
1824;  but  the  first  missionaries  to  So*th  Africa 
did  not  go  until  1829.  For  some  time  this  was 
the  only  work.  Then  came  the  revolution  of 
1848,  and  as  soon  as  the  country  had  regained 
its  vigor  missionary  activity  was  resumed.  A 
mission  was  established  in  China  (1859),  but  not 
kept  up.  Three  years  later  Senegambia  was 
occupied,  and  from  this  the  work  extended  into 
Senegal,  and,  on  the  French  occupation  of  the 
Gabun    region,   missionaries    were    sent    to    the 


EUROPEAN    AND    OTHER    MISSIONS  93 

Congo,  while  farther  north  from  Algiers  efforts 
were  made  to  reach  the  Kabyles.  As  French 
colonies  have  increased,  it  has  been  fortunate 
that  the  Paris  Society  could  be  ready  to  meet 
the  aggression  of  the  Jesuits,  who  have  always 
looked  upon  France  as  their  special  protector. 
Thus,  when  the  work  of  the  London  Society  in 
Tahiti  was  hampered  by  French  occupation,  the 
Paris  Society  was  able  to  step  in  and  preserve 
the  continuity  of  the  evangelical  church  life. 
So,  more  lately,  in  Madagascar,  it  seemed  for  a 
time  as  if  the  English  work  was  to  be  destroyed. 
The  Paris  Society  has  not  merely  taken  up  a 
portion  of  the  work  itself,  but  rendered  most 
valuable  assistance  in  preserving  the  English  and 
Norwegian  missions.  The  Society  of  the  Free 
Churches  of  French  Switzerland,  founded  in 
1874,  was  an  offshoot  from  the  Paris  Society, 
and  combines  the  energies  of  Neufchatel,  Geneva, 
and  the  Canton  de  Vaud.  Its  work  is  in  the 
Transvaal,  South  Africa. 

Colonial  Societies.— Under  this  general 
term  may  be  grouped  a  large  number  of  societies, 
of  greater  or  less  size,  estabhshed  in  the  different 
colonies,  chiefly  English,  in  the  West  Indies, 
Australasia,  and  South  Africa.  They  originated, 
in  most  cases,  in  the  colonial  work  of  the  different 
societies,  and  sometimes  commenced  as  home 
missions,  only  branching  out  into  foreign  missions 
after  the  colonies  became  fully  established. 
Those  in  the  West  Indies  are  chiefly  diocesan 
missions  connected  with  the  Church  of  England, 
and  perhaps  scarcely  should  be  classed  as  distinct 
missionary  societies,  although  some  of  them  date 
back  to  1824.  One,  the  Jamaica  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Society,  is  closely  connected  with  the 
Enghsh   Baptist   Society,  which   has   sought   to 


94  GENERAL    HISTORY 

withdraw  from  the  islands  in  its  favor.  In  South 
Africa,  also,  there  are  several  diocesan  missions, 
although  the  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society  is  the 
largest.  The  Dutch  churches  have  of  late  years, 
especially  under  the  lead  of  the  Rev.  Andrew 
Murray,  interested  themselves  greatly  in  the  work, 
especially  of  providing  native  teachers  for  the 
interior  tribes;  and  their  school  at  Wellington, 
called  the  Mount  Holyoke  of  South  Africa,  is 
doing  a  noble  work  in  this  line.  India,  too,  has 
a  number  of  such  enterprises,  although  they  have 
taken  the  form  very  largely  of  societies  for  Bible 
and  tract  publication  and  distribution  rather  than 
distinctively  evangelistic  work.  The  same  is  true 
of  China. 

Australasia,  however,  has  seen  the  most  ef- 
fective work  of  this  nature.  It  includes  some 
societies  that  rank  with  any  in  America  or  Europe 
in  respect  to  the  vigor  and  individuality  of  the 
work.  A  considerable  number,  indeed,  cooperate 
with  the  home  societies,  Church  of  England, 
Wesleyan,  Baptist,  and  Congregational.  The 
Presbyterians  have  effected  a  formal  union  with 
their  brethren  in  Scotland  and  Canada  in  the 
conduct  of  the  New  Hebrides  mission,  one  of 
the  most  interesting  and  widely  known  in  the 
South  Seas.  Special  mention  should  be  made  of 
the  Melanesian  mission  and  the  Hawaiian  Evan- 
gelical Association.  The  first  arose  from  the  sug- 
gestion of  Archbishop  Howley,  on  the  consecra- 
tion of  Bishop  Selwyn  as  the  first  Bishop  of  N  ew 
Zealand  in  1841,  that  he  establish  an  island  mis- 
sion apart  from  his  diocese.  Nine  years  later  the 
plan  was  matured,  and  the  society  from  that  day 
has  done  a  noble  work  in  some  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult groups.  It  transformed  Norfolk  Island,  the 
penal  colony,  and  has  worked  in  the  Solomon, 


EUROPEAN    AND    OTHER    MISSIONS  95 

New  Hebrides,  and  other  groups.  The  martyr 
Bishop  Patteson  was  in  charge  at  the  time  of  his 
death  (1864).  The  Hawaiian  Evangehcal  Asso- 
ciation was  organized  in  1 85 1 ,  under  the  influence 
of  the  missionaries  of  the  American  Board  at  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  and  has  carried  on,  in  coopera- 
tion with  that  Board,  the  mission  work  in  Micro- 
nesia— the  Gilbert,  Marshall,  Caroline,  and  other 
groups— and  the  Marquesas  Islands. 


PART  II 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FIELD 


NORTH    AND    SOUTH    AMERICA 

The  history  of  missions  in  the  western  hemi- 
sphere maybe  divided  into  three  sections :  Roman 
CathoHc  missions,  Protestant  missions  to  the  In- 
dians, Eskimos,  and  negro  slaves,  and  Protestant 
missions  in  the  Roman  CathoHc  countries  of 
Central  and  South  America.  The  first  com- 
menced with  or  soon  after  the  discovery  of  the 
country,  and  practically  ceased  with  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  second,  although 
there  were  desultory  efforts  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  began  as  the  Roman  CathoHc  missions 
had  spent  their  force,  and,  except  in  some  parts 
of  British  America,  had  been  absorbed  into  the 
home  work  of  the  churches  by  1870.  The  third 
commenced  about  1830,  and  are  to-day  the  most 
noticeable  missionary  efforts  on  this  side  the 
Atlantic. 

Roman  Catholic  Missions.— The  first 
European  colonies  in  America  were  estabHshed 
in  Brazil,  soon  after  its  discovery  in  1500  by  the 
Portuguese.  Mexico  was  invaded  in  15 10,  Peru 
in  1 53 1,  Argentine  in  1535,  Paraguay  in  1536, 
and  Chile  in  1541.  The  fact  that  Cortes  had  so 
small  a  force,  only  about  seven  hundred  men, 
while  Pizarro  and  his  company  numbered  one 
99 


100  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

hundred  and  eighty,  indicates  the  peculiar  weak- 
ness of  the  races  that  occupied  Central  and  South 
America,  a  weakness  that  made  the  problem  of 
the  missionary,  not  less  than  of  the  general,  an 
easy  one.  The  former,  however,  did  not  appear 
until  the  latter  had  prepared  the  way.  The 
Franciscans  reached  Mexico  in  1522,  when  the 
Spaniards  were  in  the  flush  of  victory  and  all 
thought  of  opposition  was  gone.  Within  six 
years  two  hundred  thousand  Christians  had  been 
enrolled,  and  by  1551  it  was  claimed  that  over 
one  million  persons  had  been  baptized  by  the 
Franciscans  alone,  while  the  Dominicans,  Au- 
gustinians,  and  Jesuits  followed  with  their  stories 
of  wonderful  conversions.  The  record  in  South 
America  was  similar,  and  by  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century  there  had  been  as  great  a  change 
as  in  the  third  century  of  Christian  progress  in 
the  East,  although  in  some  places,  notably  Para- 
guay, the  bitter  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards  made 
attempts  at  conversion  by  the  Franciscans  use- 
less, and  they  only  yielded  to  Christianity  when 
the  Jesuits  secured  the  reconversion  of  the  con- 
querors and  established  their  own  rule.  So  far 
as  appears  there  was  no  effort  at  pressure.  The 
fact  that  Roman  Catholicism  was  the  state  re- 
ligion, and  that  conversion  was  a  i^erequisite 
to  pohtical  preferment,  unquestionably  had  its 
weight  there,  as  in  the  Dutch  colonies  in  the 
East  Indies,  but  so  far  as  the  records  show  there 
was  no  forcible  proselytism.  One  thing  helped 
to  facilitate  the  work  of  conversion.  The  people 
were  naturally  religious,  easily  swayed  by  super- 
stition, but  of  a  much  finer  type  than  that  which 
rules  the  fierce  tribes  of  Africa.  They  were  pe- 
culiarly amenable  to  the  influence  of  pomp  and 
ritual,  and  the  priests  took  advantage  of  many 


NORTH   AND    SOUTH    AMERICA  1 01 

of  their  ideas  and  adapted  them  to  the  service, 
so  that  the  change  was  less  noticeable  than  in 
some  other  countries  and  not  at  all  repugnant. 
The  natural  result  was  a  race  of  devout  Roman 
Catholics,  whose  Christianity,  however,  judged 
by  the  European  standard,  even  as  attested  by 
French  priests,  lacked  moral  power.  The  sit- 
uation was  not  improved  by  the  influx  of  a 
vast  number  of  Europeans,  generally  of  the  low- 
est classes^  who  brought  with  them  the  vices  and 
few  if  any  of  the  virtues  of  the  Old  World,  and, 
freed  from  the  shghtest  restraint,  ran  riot  in  vice 
and  crime,  until,  in  about  a  century  after  the 
first  mission  in  Mexico,  the  whole  continent  south 
to  Patagonia  was  buried  in  a  superstition  little  if 
any  less  degrading  than  that  which  it  had  dis- 
placed. 

Then  commenced  the  trend  northward.  The 
Franciscans  had  made  various  attempts,  unsuc- 
cessful until  1573  and  1597,  in  Florida  and  New 
Mexico.  In  1608  the  French  Jesuits  established 
themselves  on  the  Atlantic  coast  at  the  mouth  of 
the  St.  Croix  River,  and  soon  after  commenced 
the  famous  Abnakis  mission  in  Maine,  which 
gathered  its  converts  in  every  village  on  the 
Kennebec.  In  161 5  Franciscan  Recollets  (Rec- 
ollects) started  the  mission  among  the  Hurons 
or  Wyandots  near  Quebec,  followed  by  the  Jes- 
uits (1669)  among  the  Iroquois  south  of  Mont- 
real. These  missions  had  a  very  different  history 
from  those  to  the  south.  The  Indians  themselves 
were  of  a  much  more  hardy,  independent  type, 
but  the  chief  difficulty  probably  was  the  bitter 
animosity  aroused  by  the  wars  between  the 
French  and  English.  For  a  century  and  a  half 
the  contest  continued,  and  with  the  final  victory 
of  the   English   the   missions  practically   disap- 


102  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

peared,  the  Catholic  Church  contenting  itself  with 
keeping  its  hold  on  the  French  colonists  of  Que- 
bec and  Montreal.  A  similar  experience  attended 
the  missions  near  the  Great  Lakes,  commenced 
by  Jesuits  in  1641.  Just  as  these  closed,  another 
move  westward  was  made  in  1769,  by  Francis- 
cans, who  gave  the  seaport  of  CaHfornia  its  name, 
and  a  number  of  mission  colonies  were  estab- 
lished. From  that  time  httle  aggressive  work 
was  done,  until  of  late  years  the  Church  has  re- 
vived its  interest  and  carries  on  school  and  mission 
work  among  the  remaining  tribes. 

Protestant  Missions  to  the  Eskimos,  In- 
dians, and  Negroes  Outside  of  the  United 
States. — The  former  includes  the  work  in  Green- 
land and  Labrador ;  the  second  that  among  the 
aboriginal  tribes  of  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada ;  the  third  the  work  in  the  West  Indies  and 
on  the  north  coast  of  South  America. 

Missions  to  Eskimos.— These  were  started 
by  the  Danes  in  1721,  who  sent  Hans  Egede  to 
Greenland  about  the  same  time  that  Ziegenbalg 
went  to  the  East  Indies.  There  was  not  as  much 
interest  in  that  field,  and  a  few  years  later  the 
Moravians  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  mis- 
sionary. Largely  due  to  their  labors,  the  coun- 
try is  in  the  main  a  Christian  countr)^^  although 
work  is  still  carried  on  in  some  of  the  settlements. 
Then  followed  the  mission  to  Labrador,  also  by 
the  Moravians  (1752),  now  largely  conducted 
by  a  London  society  in  association  with  that  at 
Hermhut.  There  has  been  a  good  deal  of  com- 
mercial enterprise  connected  with  it,  and  the 
mission  has  encountered  considerable  opposition 
from  the  Hudson  Bay  and  other  trading  com- 
panies. It  has  been  through  some  very  bitter 
experiences  and  is  still  a  most  difficult  field.     In 


NORTH   AND    SOUTH    AMERICA  I03 

connection  with  their  work  among  the  Indians 
of  Alaska  the  Moravians  are  also  attempting  to 
reach  the  Eskimos  of  that  section.  For  the  tribes 
along  the  Arctic  Ocean,  east  of  Alaska,  there  has 
been  as  yet  nothing  done. 

Missions  to  Indians.— The  first  Protestant 
efforts  to  evangelize  the  Indians  were  undertaken 
as  part  of  parochial  work  by  two  pastors,  Thomas 
Mayhew,  Jr.,  and  John  Ehot,  at  Martha's  Vine- 
yard (1643)  and  Roxbury  (1646).  By  1674 
there  were  three  churches  and  considerably  over 
four  thousand  Indian  Christians.  The  treatment 
by  which  this  Christian  community  was  practi- 
cally destroyed  is  one  of  the  most  disgraceful 
episodes  in  American  history,  and  for  fifty  years 
there  appears  to  have  been  little  additional  effort 
made  to  reach  them,  though  Eliot's  Bible,  com- 
pleted in  1663,  passed  through  two  editions,  and 
the  work  of  the  New  England  Company  (1649) 
was  not  stopped.  In  1700  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, at  the  suggestion  of  the  governor  of  New 
York,  sent  a  missionary  to  the  Mohawks;  and 
there  were  quite  a  number  of  individual  efforts, 
as  that  of  Jonathan  Edwards  at  Stockbridge, 
Mass.  ( 1 7 5 1 ).  The  general  impression,  however, 
seems  to  have  been  that  there  was  not  much  use 
in  trying  to  Christianize  the  Indians,  and  through 
the  eighteenth  century  there  was  very  little  or- 
ganized effort,  except  that  commenced  by  the 
Moravians  in  1735  and  carried  on  in  Georgia, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  New  York,  and  a  number 
of  Western  States,  often  under  the  most  difficult 
circumstances  of  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
whites. 

United  States.— The  War  of  the  Revolution 
broke  up  whatever  work  existed,  and  the  years 
that  followed  were  too  much  occupied  with  na- 


104  DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    FIELD 

tional  development  to  think  much  about  the 
Indians.  With  the  rise  of  the  missionary  spirit 
early  in  this  century,  however,  they  were  the  first 
objects  of  interest,  and  the  earhest  societies  were 
all  formed  for  work  among  them.  This  was  true 
of  the  American  Board,  and  the  other  organiza- 
tions that  followed,  all  of  which  looked  upon  the 
pagans  at  home  as  having  at  ieast  an  equal,  if 
not  a  prior,  claim  to  that  of  the  heathen  abroad. 
The  result  was  that  it  was  not  long  before  mission 
work  was  established  in  every  part  of  the  coun- 
try, and  missionaries  went  to  their  fields  among 
the  Nez  Perces,  Cherokees,  Choctaws,  Dakotas, 
Sioux,  etc.,  with  the  same  earnestness  and  devo- 
tion as  those  to  India,  Africa,  and  the  Pacific. 
The  annals,  too,  of  those  days  show  success  and 
heroism  equal  to  those  of  other  fields.  There 
was,  however,  a  constantly  increasing  element 
which  made  the  work  both  more  difficult  and  less 
necessary.  As  settlement  spread  westward,  and 
the  territory  was  absorbed  by  the  whites,  and  the 
reservation  principle  was  adopted  for  the  Indians, 
the  missionaries  found  themselves  fighting  the 
vices,  not  of  heathenism,  but  of  civilization. 
They  became  home  rather  than  foreign  mission- 
aries, and  the  fact  was  recognized  by  their  trans- 
ference to  the  home  boards  of  the  Churches, 
which  now  care  for  them.  ^ 

British  America.— North  of  the  United 
States  the  situation  has  been  different.  The 
slower  progress  of  white  settlement  has  kept  for 
the  work  of  caring  for  the  Indians  of  the  West 
and  Northwest,  to  a  greater  degree,  the  appear- 
ance of  a  foreign  mission  work.  One  of  the  most 
effective  agencies  is  still,  as  it  has  been  since  1826, 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  of  England,  al- 
though the  various  denominations,   Methodist, 


NORTH    AND    SOUTH    AMERICA  105 

Presbyterian,  Baptist,  and  Congregational,  have 
regularly  organized  work.  The  famous  enter- 
prise of  Mr.  Duncan,  inaugurated  at  Metla 
Kahtla  under  the  Church  Missionary  Society 
and  transferred  to  the  Alaskan  border,  is  an  in- 
stance of  what  might  have  been  accomplished 
had  missionary  effort  not  so  frequently  been 
neutralized  by  political  ambitions. 

Central  and  South  America.— Protestant 
missions  to  the  Indians  of  these  countries  have 
been  very  limited.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century  Von  Welz,  after  failing  to  arouse 
a  missionary  spirit  in  Holland,  devoted  himself 
to  work  in  Dutch  Guiana,  where  he  died.  The 
Moravians  also  attempted  in  1738  to  establish  a 
work  among  the  Arrawack  Indians  of  Surinam 
(Guiana),  but  it  was  never  very  successful  and 
was  given  up  in  1808.  Since  the  establishment 
of  missions  in  Mexico,  attention  has  been  directed 
to  the  Indian  tribes  still  existent  in  the  moun- 
tains, and  the  Methodist  and  Presbyterian  boards 
especially  have  met  with  considerable  success 
among  them.  The  Moravians  have  also  since 
1847  carried  on  a  mission  among  the  Indians  on 
the  Mosquito  Coast  of  Central  America.  In  South 
America,  however,  work  among  the  native  races 
has  been  prosecuted  with  vigor  and  success  by 
the  South  American  Missionary  Society.  The 
impulse  was  given  by  Captain  Allen  Gardiner  of 
the  British  navy,  who  made  repeated  attempts  to 
reach  the  Indian  tribes  along  the  west  coast,  but 
was  constantly  thwarted  by  the  hostility  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  priests.  At  last  he  secured 
(1844)  the  formation  of  the  Patagonian  Mission- 
ary Society  for  work  among  the  natives  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego.  His  tragic  death  accomplished  even 
more  than  his  life,  and  the  society,  enlarged  under 


I06  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

the  name  of  the  South  American  Missionary  So- 
ciety, has  done  and  is  doing  a  good  work  among 
those  races  all  over  the  continent.  It  was  the 
record  of  the  Fuegian  mission  of  this  society  that 
drew  from  Charles  Darwin  his  earnest  tribute  to 
the  power  of  Christianity  over  the  most  brutish 
specimens  of  the  human  race.  Other  societies, 
Methodist,  Presbyterian,  and  Baptist,  do  as  much 
as  possible  for  these  races,  but  their  chief  atten- 
tion is  directed  to  the  Roman  Catholics.  The 
American  Board  sent  an  exploring  expedition  to 
Patagonia,  but  decided  not  to  occupy  the  country. 
Missions  to  Negroes.— Under  this  head 
are  included,  not  the  colored  people  of  the  United 
States,  but  the  negroes  of  the  West  Indies,  Cen- 
tral America,  and  the  north  coast  of  South 
America.  The  effect  of  foreign  rule  in  the  West 
Indies  was  completely  to  wipe  out  the  original 
Indian  races.  They  were  replaced  by  slaves 
brought  from  Africa  and  colonists  from  Spain. 
The  treatment  of  the  negroes  was  terrible,  and 
their  general  condition  such  as  to  excite  the  pity 
of  all  who  knew  of  it.  The  first  mission  of  the 
Moravians  was  to  the  slaves  of  St.  Thomas,  and 
they  extended  their  work  until  it  covered  as  many 
of  the  islands  as  they  were  permitted  to  enter. 
The  larger  Spanish  islands  were  closed  to  them. 
They  extended  it  also  to  the  Busk  negroes  of 
Surinam,  as  they  found  the  Arrawack  Indians 
practically  inaccessible.  The  Moravians  have 
been  followed  by  a  number  of  societies,  chiefly 
English,  especially  in  the  English  West  Indies, 
Trinidad,  Jamaica,  Bahamas,  Barbados,  etc. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  local  societies  for  the 
same  work.  There  has  been  a  considerable  de- 
velopment among  the  colored  people  themselves, 
and  local  churches  are  doing  good  work.     A 


NORTH    AND    SOUTH    AMERICA  107 

notable  instance  is  that  of  the  Baptist  churches 
in  the  Bahamas,  under  the  lead  of  the  Rev.  D. 
Wilshere,  formerly  a  missionary  of  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  of  England. 

Missions  to  Roman  Catholics.— These 
have  been  carried  on  by  various  organizations, 
commencing  with  the  sending  of  two  missionaries 
of  the  American  Board  to  Buenos  Ayres  (1823). 
Their  work,  however,  was  not  permanent.  The 
first  permanent  mission  work  was  that  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  Brazil  and  Buenos 
Ayres  (1836),  and  three  years  later  in  Monte- 
video. Of  late  years  the  work  of  this  Church 
has  been  extended  to  Peru,  Chile,  and  Paraguay. 
In  1849  the  American  and  Foreign  Christian 
Union  was  organized  in  the  United  States,  espe- 
cially for  work  in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  and 
started  missions  in  Colombia,  Chile,  and  other 
places.  Subsequently  (1873)  its  work  in  South 
America  was  handed  over  to  the  Presbyterians, 
who  already  had  (1856)  a  mission  in  New  Gra- 
nada (now  Colombia)  and  in  Brazil  (1859).  Other 
bodies,  the  Southern  Presbyterians  and  Southern 
Baptists,  have  also  established  work,  and  Bishop 
William  Taylor's  Transit  and  Building  Fund  has 
had  enterprises  in  Chile,  which,  however,  have 
come  under  the  general  supervision  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church.  There  have  also  been 
some  individual  workers,  and  in  1897  quite  a 
force  occupied  some  fields  on  behalf  of  the  Chris- 
tian and  Missionary  Alliance.  Specially  worthy 
of  mention  is  the  educational  work  at  Sao  Paulo, 
•under  the  care  of  the  Presbyterians.  The  union 
of  the  different  Presbyterian  churches  in  Brazil 
has  resulted  in  greater  efficiency  and  less  friction. 
Farther  north  the  Presbyterians  have  missions  in 
Guatemala  (1882)  and  Mexico  (1872).      There 


I08  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

are  also  in  Mexico  missions  of  the  American 
Board  (1872),  the  two  Methodist  Episcopal 
churches  (both  1873),  Southern  Baptists  (1889), 
Southern  Presbyterians  (1889),  Friends  (1871), 
and  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  the  South 
(1875).  There  is  also  work  carried  on  by  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  but  on  a  some- 
what different  basis.  The  American  Bible  So- 
ciety has  several  agencies  in  Mexico,  Central 
and  South  America,  and  sells  a  large  number  of 
Scriptures. 

European  Missions.— In  this  connection 
reference  may  appropriately  be  made  to  the  mis- 
sions, chiefly  of  the  American  Board,  the  Meth- 
odists, and  the  Baptists,  in  Europe.  The  American 
Board  in  1872  took  up  the  work  of  the  Ameri- 
can and  Foreign  Christian  Union  in  Italy,  and 
added  to  it  work  in  Austria  and  Spain.  That  in 
Italy  was  not  continued,  but  in  Santander,  San  Se- 
bastian, and  other  places  in  Spain  and  in  Prague, 
Austria,  an  influential  work  is  being  carried  on 
which  is  doing  much  to  strengthen  evangelical 
life.  The  Girls*  School  at  San  Sebastian  is  es- 
pecially successful,  having  won  high  encomiums 
even  from  hostile  Spanish  officials.  The  Meth- 
odist and  Baptist  Churches  have  large  missions  in 
Germany,  Scandinavia,  etc.,  chiefly  of  a  sort  of 
home  missionary  type,  much  as  carried  on  in  this 
country.  There  are  also  a  number  of  enterprises, 
more  or  less  of  an  individual  character,  in  Spain 
and  especially  in  Italy.  The  Anglican  Church  in 
Ireland  has  been  warmly  interested  in  an  effort 
to  establish  a  Reformed  Church  in  Spain,  and  has 
met  with  some  success.  The  well-known  McAll 
Mission  in  France  started  from  England,  but 
having  numerous  supporters  in  America,  has  done 
an  excellent  work. 


NORTH    AND    SOUTH    AMERICA  IO9 

Character  and  Methods.— The  general 
character  of  mission  work  in  Roman  Catholic 
countries  varies  somewhat  according  to  the  con- 
ception of  it  by  different  missionaries.  Some, 
believing  that  the  low  state  of  morals  as  well  as 
religion  is  directly  due  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  have  constantly  attacked  that  church 
with  as  much  energy  as  they  would  Islam  or 
Hinduism.  Others,  while  recognizing  the  evil 
results  of  Roman  Catholic  teaching,  have  em- 
phasized the  necessity  of  Christian  life  rather  than 
of  separation  from  that  Church,  and  have  sought 
by  education  as  well  as  preaching  to  give  a  clearer 
view  of  the  Bible  and  the  personal  duty  of  those 
who  call  themselves  Christians.  In  some  cases 
there  has  been  necessary  a  determined  batde  for 
the  rights  of  conscience,  and  everywhere  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Roman  Catholic  priests  has  been 
strong  against  the  missions.  They  have,  how- 
ever, advanced  steadily  and,  with  the  increasing 
freedom  of  political  life,  have  gained  much  in- 
fluence among  the  people.  The  methods  adopted 
have  been  both  evangelistic  and  educational. 
In  many  places  great  stress  has  been  laid  on 
schools,  and  newspapers  have  been  published 
and  exerted  a  very  strong  influence.  This  has 
been  especially  noticeable  in  Mexico  and  Brazil. 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  work  has 
also  proved  very  advantageous.  In  general  it 
may  be  said  that  Protestant  missions  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries  have  very  much  the  same 
general  character  and  employ  the  same  methods 
as  home  and  city  missions.  The  broader  con- 
ception of  the  work  is  gaining  ground. 


II 

AFRICA 

Ever  since  the  revival  of  interest  in  missions, 
commencing  with  the  maritime  discoveries  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  there  has  been  a  pecuhar  charm 
about  Africa.  The  very  vagueness  of  know- 
ledge as  to  its  geography  and  its  races  has  stimu- 
lated curiosity,  while  the  terrible  sufferings  of  its 
innocent  victims  of  a  slavery  unsurpassed  in 
horror  even  by  the  ravages  of  cannibals  in  the 
South  Seas  or  in  its  own  impenetrable  forests 
have  aroused  the  intense  sympathy  of  Christian 
people  and  inspired  them  to  marvelous  devotion 
and  sacrifice.  In  no  mission  land  of  the  world 
has  life  been  poured  out  so  freely,  and  the  early 
annals  of  many  mission  enterprises  have  been 
simply  records  of  martyrdom,  not  so  much  by 
violence  as  by  disease,  under  the  f!ttal  influence 
of  climate  and  unaccustomed  conditions  of  life. 
Still  the  supply  of  workers  has  never  failed.  As 
one  and  another  have  fallen,  others  have  come  to 
fill  their  places.  Better  knowledge  has  brought 
wiser  action,  and  at  last  much  of  the  danger  has 
been  overcome,  and,  after  years  chiefly  of  experi- 
ments, at  times  almost  fruitless,  the  work  is  ad- 
vancing rapidly. 

Geographical  Discovery.— Africa  is  in  no 
no 


AFRICA  ill 

sense  a  mission  field  with  general  characteristics 
which  even  under  differing  circumstances  give 
some  unity  to  the  work.  It  is  rather  a  collection 
of  fields,  each  totally  different  from  every  other 
in  physical,  racial,  social,  and  linguistic  character. 
It  is  also  distinctively  a  modern  field,  geographi- 
cal discovery  having  had  a  more  direct  relation 
to  its  occupation  than  in  any  other  case.  From 
the  time  of  the  Phenicians  to  the  middle  ages 
practically  nothing  was  known  of  the  continent 
except  along  the  Mediterranean.  When  the 
Portuguese  commenced  their  voyages  in  the  fif- 
teenth century  they  followed  the  west  coast, 
reaching  Cape  Verde  in  1446,  Sierra  Leone  in 
1463,  the  Congo  in  1484,  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  in  i486,  while  a  few  years  later  Vasco  da 
Gama  sailed  along  the  east  coast  as  far  as  Cape 
Guardafui.  As  a  result  trading-posts  were  estab- 
lished in  many  places,  but  there  seems  to  have 
been  little  or  no  colonizing  until  the  seventeenth 
century,  when  the  Dutch  established  themselves 
near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  A  century  later 
exploration  commenced  in  earnest.  Bruce  on 
the  Blue  Nile,  Mungo  Park  and  Landers  on  the 
Niger,  and  Tuckey  on  the  Congo,  gave  a  faint 
idea  of  these  great  rivers,  but  it  was  little  more 
than  an  idea.  In  1844  Krapf  and  Rebmann,  by 
their  discovery  of  Mount  Kilimanjaro,  led  the 
way  for  Livingstone,  Blaikie,  Burton,  and  Speke, 
and  opened  up  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Nile 
(1862).  About  the  same  time  Barth  explored  the 
central  Sudan  and  Lake  Tchad.  Then  came 
Stanley's  journeys  (1871-77),  and  Schweinfurth 
and  Nachtigal  (1869-74)  brought  the  Sudan 
races  to  the  knowledge  of  the  world.  Since  then 
journeys  have  been  repeated,  until  now  the  only 
sections  as  to  which  there  is  so  httle  known  as  to 


112  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

be  practically  nothing  are  those  north  of  the 
western  Zambesi,  southeast  of  Lake  Tchad,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  Sahara.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that,  in  a  special  sense,  Africa  is  modern 
mission  ground,  only  a  very  small  portion  of  it 
being  known  at  all  to  the  Christian  Church  at 
the  time  of  the  revival  of  missionary  interest. 

European  Occupation.— This  scarcely  less 
than  the  actual  discovery  has  been  a  most  im- 
portant factor  in  missionary  work.  As  noted 
above,  it  was  not  until  the  seventeenth  century 
that  anything  more  was  done  by  Europeans  than 
to  establish  trading-posts  with  a  certain  amount 
of  suzerainty  over  the  immediately  adjoining 
country.  This  was  mostly  done  by  the  Portu- 
guese. Then  came  the  Dutch,  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  last  century  the  Enghsh  drove  the 
Boers  back  from  the  coast,  and  commenced  in 
Cape  Colony  the  African  development  of  the 
present  century.  Until  the  discoveries  of  Liv- 
ingstone and  Stanley  there  was  little  done  except 
to  hold  ground  already  gained;  but  then  there 
was  a  rush,  England,  Germany,  and  France 
vying  with  one  another  in  extension  of  influence, 
while  Portugal  hurriedly  drew  her  boundaries, 
and  the  Dutch  Boers  became  anxious  for  their 
independence.  In  1885  the  celebrated  BerHn 
Conference  established  the  Congo  Free  State, 
and  the  general  lines  of  influence  of  the  three 
powers  most  interested  were  drawn,  though  so 
vaguely  that  since  then  there  has  been  continual 
strife,  until  now  barely  one  fifth  of  the  entire 
continent  can  be  said  to  be  really  in  the  hands 
of  its  original  inhabitants.  In  general  the  influ- 
ence of  these  aggressions  has  been  favorable  to 
missions.  England  and  the  Congo  Free  State 
give    every   possible    encouragement    and   even 


AFRICA  113 

assistance.  Portugal  is  hostile,  but  not  as  aggres- 
sively so  as  Spain  in  her  smaller  territory.  Ger- 
many is,  on  the  whole,  favorable,  but  with  no 
great  cordiality.  France  aims  to  be  neutral,  but 
watches  with  jealous  eye  any  movement  by  mis- 
sionaries that  may  possibly  be  construed  politi- 
cally. 

The  Missionary  Problem.— This  has  been 
a  constantly  shifting  one,  varying  as  new  coun- 
tries were  opened  up  or  new  political  influences 
assisted  or  hindered  the  work.  It  is  possible, 
however,  by  taking  the  different  sections  in  order, 
to  gain  something  of  an  idea  of  what  difficulties 
have  been  presented  by  the  different  races,  and 
the  physical  characteristics  of  the  continent. 
The  ordinary  division  into  North,  South,  East, 
West,  and  Central  is  necessarily  somewhat  vague, 
but  is  perhaps  the  most  available. 

North  Africa,  including  the  Mediterranean 
states  from  Egypt  to  Morocco,  is  distinctly  Mo- 
hammedan. The  dominant  native  element  is  the 
Arab,  but  the  Berbers,  including  a  number  of 
tribes  of  different  names,  are  Moslem  chiefly  in 
form.  Some  of  them  are  rough  and  fierce ; 
others,  especially  the  Kabyles  of  Algeria,  are  of 
finer  grade.  Egypt  is  included  in  the  Levant, 
and  spoken  of  in  the  next  chapter. 

West  Africa,  embracing  the  coast  states  from 
the  Senegal  River  to  the  southern  boundary  of 
Angola,  nearly  on  a  line  with  the  Zambesi  River, 
is  in  some  respects  the  most  difficult  part  of  the 
continent.  Here  are  Dahomey,  Coomassie,  the 
fierce  tribes  east  of  Liberia  and  Sierra  Leone,  and 
of  the  Niger  valley.  It  is  the  region  of  the  most 
revolting  forms  of  the  slave-trade,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  the  fiercest  and  most  brutal  tribes.  It 
is,  too,  the  most  unhealthful  section,  the  equatorial 


114  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

climate  and  low,  swampy  lands  making  it  almost 
impossible  for  Europeans  to  live.  The  southern 
part,  spoken  of  at  times  as  West  Central  Africa, 
is  somewhat  different.  Back  from  the  coast  rise 
high  table-lands,  whose  races  are  more  amenable 
to  Christian  influences. 

South  Africa,  the  entire  region  south  of  the 
Zambesi  River,  is  in  many  respects  almost  an 
ideal  missionary  field.  The  climate  is  healthful, 
and  the  dominant  race,  the  Bantu,  including  the 
Zulus,  Basutos,  Bechuanas,  Matabeles,  and  others, 
are  of  a  very  different  type  from  the  negroes  of 
the  Congo,  although  black  and  often  called  by 
that  name.  More  refined  in  nature,  of  a  higher 
grade  of  ability  and  character,  they  offer  a  most 
attractive  field  for  missionary  effort.  Less  inter- 
esting, yet  still  very  approachable,  are  the  Hot- 
tentots and  Bushmen,  having  perhaps  the  lowest 
grade  of  intellect  in  the  land.  South  Africa, 
being  almost  entirely  under  British,  German,  or 
Dutch  rule,  is  fully  open  to  mission  work. 

East  Africa,  from  the  Zambesi  to  Cape  Guar- 
dafui,  corresponds  somewhat  to  the  lower  part  of 
West  Africa.  Along  the  coast  unhealthful,  but  on 
the  high  table-lands  east  of  the  Great  Lakes  the 
very  reverse,  occupied  for  the  most  part  by  Bantu 
races,  and  chiefly  under  German  or  Enghsh  pro- 
tection, it  presents  only  such  difficulties  as  are 
involved  in  difficulty  of  access,  paganism  still  un- 
adulterated  by  civilization,  sometimes  hardened 
by  Mohammedanism,  and  the  continuance  of 
slavery,  less  brutal  in  some  respects  than  that  of 
the  west  coast,  but  still  a  powerful  hindrance  to 
evangelical  influences. 

Central  Africa,  including  the  Congo  Free  State 
with  the  sections  immediately  north  and  south, 
presents    great  obstacles.     The   climate   in   the 


AFRICA  115 

main  unhealthful,  the  races  embruted  to  the  last 
degree  by  the  slave-trade,  combine  to  make  it  a 
most  difficult  field.  On  the  other  hand,  the  gov- 
ernment shows  special  consideration,  and  the 
extension  of  means  of  communication  offers  facil- 
ities of  great  value. 

Somewhat  outside  of  these  general  divisions 
are  Abyssinia,  the  Sudan,  and  the  Sahara,  all 
practically  closed  to  mission  effort — the  first  by 
the  Abyssinian  Church,  the  second  by  Islam, 
and  the  third  by  ignorance  as  to  its  character 
both  physical  and  racial.  The  French  are  rap- 
idly removing  this  last,  however,  and  another 
decade  may  see  what  has  been  known  as  the 
Great  Desert  opened  in  its  oases  and  fertile  sec- 
tions, said  to  be  numerous,  to  missions. 

No  Uniform  Methods.— So  multiform  a 
problem,  it  is  evident,  could  not  be  solved  by  any 
general  plan  or  uniform  method.  Hence  mission 
work  in  Africa  has  followed  more  the  methods 
of  early  Christian  work.  It  has  been  individual 
rather  than  general,  personal  rather  than  national. 
The  simplest  of  gospel  preaching  has  taken  pre- 
cedence, followed,  and  that  not  very  closely,  by 
education,  although  in  some  places  and  among 
some  tribes,  as  the  Wa-ganda  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
it  has  held  a  foremost  place,  and  Lovedale  Insti- 
tute in  South  Africa  is  a  leader  in  missionary 
industrial  education.  Medical  missions  have 
from  the  beginning  been  most  useful,  and  of  later 
years  one  of  the  most  prominent  factors,  although 
hospital  and  dispensary  work  has  not  been  carried 
on  to  the  same  degree  as  in  China.  Industrial 
miissions  have  been  developed  most  effectively. 
The  low  plane  of  living  made  the  most  ordinary 
comforts  and  even  necessities  of  life  very  rare, 
and  not  even  among  the  South  Sea  Islanders  was 


Il6  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

"  the  gospel  of  a  clean  shirt "  more  needed.  With 
most,  the  very  conception  of  orderly,  and  what  to 
Americans  seems  decent,  living  had  almost  to  be 
created  by  special  instruction.  Homes  and  cloth- 
ing, as  well  as  churches  and  books,  had  to  be 
taught  by  object-lessons,  and  the  missionary  was 
forced  to  be  carpenter,  agriculturist,  brick-maker, 
etc.,  not  merely  for  himself,  but  for  his  converts. 
Thus  instruction  in  the  trades  has  assumed  a  very 
prominent  place.  Even  the  furnishing  of  the 
Bible,  and  instruction  in  religious  thought,  marked 
in  many  cases  a  comparatively  late  stage  of  the 
work.  For  all  except  the  Arab-speaking  peoples 
the  language  had  first  to  be  reduced  to  writing. 
Then  terms  had  to  be  found  to  express  many  of 
the  simplest  ideas  of  Christian  truth,  and  when, 
as  often  was  the  case,  they  could  not  be  found, 
they  had  to  be  manufactured.  All  this  was  made 
more  difficult  by  the  almost  innumerable  number 
of  languages  and  dialects.  Dr.  Cust  gives  the 
number  of  languages  as  438,  with  153  dialects; 
and  in  the  Bantu  family  alone  there  are  168 
languages  and  55  dialects.  Already  versions  in 
87  different  languages  have  been  prepared,  some 
of  them  such  as  will  reach  a  proportionately 
larger  number  of  people. 

Early  Enterprises.— The  first  missions  to 
Africa  in  modern  times  were  those  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  in  the  fifteenth  century,  following  the 
Portuguese  discoveries.  They  have  already  been 
referred  to  (Part  I.,"  Roman  Cathohc  Missions  "), 
and  need  no  further  notice  here.  When  the  Prot- 
estants took  up  the  enterprise  they  had  already 
[almost  faded  out  of  sight.  The  first  Protestant 
J  work  was  by  the  Moravians,  and  was  the  result 
'of  the  interest  in  the  Cape  Colony  tribes  aroused 
by  the  reports  of  Ziegenbalg,  who  saw  them  on 


AFRICA  117 

his  way  to  his  mission  in  Tranquebar.  George 
Schmidt,  who  had  proved  his  devotion  by  six 
years'  imprisonment  in  Bohemia  "  for  the  gospel," 
was  selected  by  the  Brethren  at  Herrnhut,  and 
he  arrived  at  Cape  Town  in  July,  1737.  At  that 
time  the  Dutch  were  in  full  control,  and  Dutch 
and  a  few  French  Huguenot  colonists  had  spread 
over  the  country.  They  looked  upon  the  na- 
tives as  little  if  any  better  than  animals,  and,  so 
far  as  they  had  souls,  doomed  like  the  Canaanites 
of  old.  The  idea  of  Christianizing  them  was  re- 
garded as  not  merely  absurd,  but  almost  wicked  ; 
and  the  simple-hearted,  somewhat  uneducated 
Moravian,  backed  by  no  government,  and  with 
no  means  of  support  but  his  own  labor,  was  de- 
rided almost  as  much  as  the  Hottentot.  He  per- 
sisted, however,  won  the  confidence  of  the  Hot- 
tentots, who  could  hardly  understand  a  white 
man  who  did  not  rob  and  maltreat  them,  and 
through  an  interpreter,  and  by  means  of  his  neat 
hut  and  garden,  taught  them  first  at  one  village, 
and,  when  driven  from  there  by  jealous  farmers, 
at  another,  until  a  little  company  of  Christian 
natives  was  gathered.  When  this  came  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  Cape  Town  authorities,  they 
made  their  protest  and  secured  an  order  from  the 
governor  forbidding  him  to  baptize.  Schmidt 
then  returned  to  Europe,  and  sought  to  gain 
from  the  government  of  Holland  an  order  per- 
mitting him  to  go  on  with  his  work.  He  was 
unsuccessful,  and  was  compelled  to  return  to  his 
home.  His  httle  company  waited  for  him  for  a 
long  time,  but  gradually  dispersed  or  died,  and 
for  more  than  half  a  century,  with  the  exception 
of  an  undeveloped  plan  by  Dr.  Coke,  the  Wes- 
leyan,  no  effort  even  was  made  to  reach  the 
peoples  of  Africa.     With  the  rise  of  missionary 


Il8  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

interest  at  the  close  of  the  century  attention  was 
turned  again  to  the  Dark  Continent. 

Present-century  Missions.— The  leader 
in  the  new  movement  was  again  a  Hollander, 
but  sent  out  by  the  London  Missionary  Society 
—John  T.  Vanderkemp,  who  founded  the  mis- 
sion among  the  Kafirs  of  South  Africa  in  1798. 
About  the  same  time  the  Baptists  and  the  Scotch 
and  Edinburgh  societies  had  attempted  the  west 
coast,  but  failed,  and  it  was  not  until  1804  that 
a  permanent  footing  was  secured  by  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  in  Sierra  Leone.  The  way 
thus  opened,  others  followed  rapidly,  and  as  fast 
as  circumstances  and  knowledge  of  the  country 
permitted,  missionaries  pressed  into  every  section. 
In  view  of  the  differences  in  the  fields  noted 
above,  a  clearer  conception  of  the  development 
of  the  work  will  be  gained  if  we  follow  the  geo- 
graphical order,  taking  the  different  sections  as 
they  were  occupied. 

South  Africa.— Vanderkemp's  work  was  first 
among  the  Kafirs  east  of  Cape  Town,  and  then 
among  the  Bushmen,  but  with  the  coming  of 
Robert  Moffat  (1818)  attention  was  directed  to 
the  Bechuanas.  Orange  River  was  crossed,  and 
the  door  opened  into  Central  Africa,  afterward 
entered  by  Livingstone,  the  immediate  occasion 
being  a  determined  attack  on  the  tribes  by  the 
Dutch  Boers,  evidently  with  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting further  development.  Livingstone's  own 
property  was  destroyed ;  he  was  brought  up  for 
trial  and  banished  from  the  country.  Saying, 
"  The  Boers  resolved  to  shut  up  the  interior,  and 
I  determined  to  open  the  country ;  we  shall  see 
who  has  succeeded— they  or  I,"  he  pushed  north, 
discovered  Lake  Ngami,  and  did  for  Africa  what 
no  other  man  has  done.     The  next  society  to 


AFRICA  119 

enter  was  the  Wesleyan  (18 14),  and  the  chosen 
field  was  to  the  west,  Namaqualand  and  the 
Hottentots,  subsequently  extended  eastward  to 
Kafirland,  Bechuanaland,  and  Natal.  In  1821 
the  Glasgow  Missionary  Society  started  the  work 
which  afterward,  under  the  care  of  the  Free 
Church  of  Scodand,  became  so  well  known  ;  and 
the  Paris  Evangelical  Society  also  selected  this 
as  their  first  enterprise  (1829),  drawn  perhaps  by 
the  presence  of  a  Huguenot  element.  They,  too, 
as  the  others,  met  with  opposition  from  the  Dutch, 
and  settled  in  Basutoland.  In  1828  the  Mora- 
vians resumed  their  work,  and  in  1830  came  the 
Rhenish  Society  from  Germany,  followed  (1834) 
by  the  Berlin  Society,  the  former  locating  in 
Cape  Colony  and  the  more  sterile  and  difficult 
Namaqualand,  the  latter  joining  the  forces  at 
work  among  the  Bantu  tribes  to  the  east.  The 
same  year  (1834)  also  saw  the  commencement  of 
the  work  of  the  American  Board  in  Natal,  at  one 
time  almost  destroyed  by  the  Zulu  war  (1843), 
but  resumed  and  since  prosecuted  with  vigor  and 
success.  A  new  and  strong  reinforcement  came 
then  in  the  taking  up  of  the  Glasgow  Society's 
work  by  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  and  in  the 
development  of  the  Lovedale  Institute,  as  well 
as  of  the  churches.  A  number  of  other  societies 
have  also  entered  this  field :  Hermannsburg, 
1858;  Primitive  Methodists  of  England,  1869; 
Schreuder's  Norwegian  Society,  1873;  Free 
Churches  of  French  Switzerland,  1874;  and 
Swedish  Church  Missions,  1876.  All  have  had 
much  the  same  experience,  measurably  favorable 
and  encouraging  when  the  political  ambitions  of 
governments  have  not  aroused  the  bitter  hostiHty 
of  the  races,  and  when  even  worse  obstacles  have 
not  appeared  in  the  form  of  European  vices. 


I20  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

The  terrible  South  African  wars  have,  at  times, 
almost  destroyed  work,  but  with  the  establishment 
of  good  government  it  has  advanced.  Under  a 
wiser  rule  the  Dutch  themselves  have  become 
more  liberal,  but  the  Transvaal  still  furnishes  un- 
occupied territory,  especially  for  the  German 
societies,  which  seem  more  congenial  to  the 
Boers. 

West  Africa. — This  has  probably  been  from 
the  first  the  most  forbidding  field  of  missionary 
effort,  not  excepting  the  degraded  South  Sea 
Islands,  and  it  has  made  the  heaviest  drafts  on 
missionary  resources,  in  life  even  more  than  in 
money.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  led  the 
way  (1804)  in  permanent  occupation,  and  has 
done  the  great  work  as  far  south  as  the  mouth  of 
the  Congo.  It  has,  however,  had  noble  assistance 
from  many  other  societies.  In  1 8 1 1  came  a  com- 
pany of  Wesleyans,  the  advance-guard  of  the 
Missionary  Society.  These  had  the  advantage 
of  the  political  security  of  the  British  colony  of 
Sierra  Leone,  established  in  1787  as  a  home  for 
freed  slaves ;  and  to  kindred  support  along  the 
whole  stretch  of  that  coast,  missions  have  owed 
much.  In  1821  the  American  Baptists  entered 
Liberia,  and  from  that  time  the  increase  has  been 
great,  until  there  is  scarcely  a  section  that  is  not 
either  occupied  by  or  within  easy  reach  of  some 
missionary  organization.  The  Basle  Society 
established  itself  on  the  Gold  Coast  in  1827, 
and  has  steadily,  but  under  heavy  disadvantages, 
carried  on  its  work.  From  1830  to  1835  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  and  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal and  Presbyterian  Churches  founded  their 
work  in  Liberia,  followed  (1842)  by  the  Ameri- 
can Missionary  Association  at  Mendi,  the  work 
being  passed  over  to  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ 


AFRICA  121 

(1883),  while  the  American  Board's  Gabun  mis- 
sion was  transferred  to  the  Presbyterians  in  1870. 
The  United  Presbyterian  Chmxh  of  Scotland 
occupied  Old  Calabar  (1846),  and  the  North 
German  Missionary  Society  the  Gold  Coast 
(1847).  In  1856  the  Southern  Baptist  Conven- 
tion succeeded  to  the  work  of  their  Northern 
brethren  in  Liberia,  and  three  years  later  the 
United  Methodist  Free  Churches  of  England 
sent  workers  to  Sierra  Leone.  At  about  the 
same  time  the  Lutheran  General  Synod  (America) 
commenced  its  work  in  Liberia,  extending  into 
the  interior,  and  in  1862  the  Paris  Evangehcal 
Society  opened  a  mission  in  the  French  colony 
on  the  Senegal,  adding  to  it  a  share  in  the  Pres- 
byterian Gabun  mission  when  that  section  came 
under  French  control.  Mention  should  also  be 
made  of  the  work  of  the  colored  organizations, 
Methodist  and  Baptist,  especially  in  Liberia. 
For  the  early  years  the  work  was  chiefly  among 
the  slaves  brought  from  the  interior,  the  native 
coast  tribes  being  too  savage  to  furnish  any  field 
for  successful  work.  Of  late,  however,  the  tribes 
in  the  interior  have  been  reached,  and  some  of 
the  noblest  work  has  been  among  them.  Every 
effort  has  been  made  to  train  for  the  work  natives 
born  to  the  climatic  conditions,  and  the  Fourah 
Bay  College  (1827)  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society  has  furnished  some  very  successful 
workers,  among  them  Bishop  Samuel  Crowther. 
West  Central  Africa,  or  West  Equatorial  Africa, 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  includes  the  mouth  of 
the  Congo  and  the  Portuguese  province  of  An- 
gola. The  Congo  work  is  properly  included  in 
Central  Africa.  Angola  has  not  been  largely 
occupied,  although  the  American  Board  has  a 
mission   on   the  highlands,  established  in   1880, 


122  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

interrupted  by  the  government  in  1883,  but 
resumed  two  years  later,  and  promising  good 
success.  This  is  also  the  section  selected  by  the 
Phil-African  League,  under  the  head  of  Heli 
Chatelain,  for  a  mission  colony — nucleus  for  a 
freed-slave  community. 

East  Africa.— In  181 9  the  Church  Mission- 
ary Society  sent  a  representative  to  Egypt  to 
confer  with  the  Coptic  ecclesiastics,  and  the 
result  was  the  Egyptian  mission.  On  his  return 
Mr.  Jowett  found  an  Amharic  manuscript  Bible 
in  the  British  Museum,  and  this  gave  occasion 
for  a  mission  to  Abyssinia  (1830),  closed  by 
French  Jesuit  intrigue  in  1838.  Krapf,  one  of 
the  missionaries,  wandered  south  to  Gallaland, 
spending  some  years  in  Shoa.  Driven  forth 
again  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  he  went  to  Mom- 
basa, and,  joined  by  Rebmann,  discovered  Kili- 
manjaro (1848),  brought  Uganda  to  the  know- 
ledge of  the  world,  gave  the  impulse  to  East 
African  discovery,  and  laid  the  foundation  for 
East  African  missions.  About  the  same  time, 
Livingstone  came  from  the  south,  and  the  Great 
Lakes  and  Congo  region  were  opened  up.  The 
pioneers  worked  on  at  Zanzibar  until  1874,  when, 
under  the  influence  of  the  news  of  the  death  of 
Livingstone,  the  two  societies.  Church  Missionary 
and  London  Missionary,  responded  to  the  appeal, 
and  inaugurated  the  Uganda  and  Lake  Tangan- 
yika missions.  They  were  soon  followed  by  the 
Scotch  Free  and  Established  Church  missions 
near  Lake  Nyassa,  while  two  Swedish  societies 
and  the  United  Methodist  Free  Churches  of 
England  have  taken  up,  though  in  limited 
degree,  the  work  among  the  Gallas.  These  in 
turn  were  followed  by  the  Universities'  Mission 
at  Mombasa  (1875)  and  a  mission  of  the  Ameri- 


AFRICA  123 

can  Board  on  the  highlands  farther  south  (1883). 
All  have  had  severe  experiences.  Meeting  a 
finer  grade  of  people  in  some  sections,  especially 
at  Uganda,  they  have  also  come  in  sharp  collision 
with  Islam  in  its  aggressive  effort  to  extend  itself 
in  Central  Africa.  The  slave-trade,  too,  has  been 
fought,  and  the  best  energies  of  the  Church  have 
been  put  forth  with  enough  of  success  to  give 
high  encouragement.  The  work,  however,  has 
scarcely  passed  beyond  the  initial  stages.  It  is 
still  to  a  great  degree  pioneer  work. 

Central  Africa. — Practically  this  term  means 
the  Congo  region,  opened  up  by  Stanley  and 
Livingstone.  Missions  to  it  are  of  very  recent 
origin,  and  were  the  direct  result  of  Stanley's  dis- 
coveries. In  1878  the  Livingstone  Inland  Mis- 
sion was  founded  by  the  East  London  Institute, 
but  afterward  (1884)  passed  over  to  the  American 
Baptist  Missionary  Union,  the  institute  starting 
another  mission  in  the  Balolo  region,  and  known 
as  the  Congo-Balolo  mission,  in  1889.  The 
Enghsh  Baptist  Missionary  Society  was  also 
among  the  first  to  enter  the  field,  while  later  came 
the  Swedish  Missionary  Society  (1884),  Bishop 
Taylor's  self-supporting  missions  (1886),  F.  S. 
Arnot's  Garenganze  mission  (1888),  the  Christian 
and  Missionary  Alliance  (1890),  taking  up  some 
individual  workers  who  had  been  there  since 
1884,  and  the  Kansas  Sudan  mission,  somewhat 
later.  The  Paris  Evangelical  Society  has  a  mis- 
sion on  the  Upper  Zambesi,  and  the  Moravians 
and  Berlin  Society  have  work  near  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika, in  what  may  be  called  both  Central  and 
East  Africa.  Here,  too,  the  work  is  yet  in  the 
initial  stages,  and  little  more  can  be  said  than 
that  it  has  progressed  favorably.  The  terrible 
hostility  of  Islam,  the  blight  of  the  slave-trade, 


124  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

have  hindered  much  ;  but  the  colonial  expansion 
of  Europe  has  been,  on  the  whole,  favorable. 
With  Central  Africa  properly  belongs  the  Sudan, 
but  that  region,  with  its  little-known  but  mighty 
races,  is  still  unentered  by  mission  forces.  France 
is  opening  the  way,  and  before  many  years  the 
Mombuttu  and  Nyam  Nyam  will  be  within  reach. 

North  Africa.— Aside  from  Egypt,  included 
in  the  next  chapter,  on  the  Levant,  there  is  very 
little  work  in  North  Africa.  The  North  Africa 
Missionary  Society  of  England  has  missionaries 
in  Morocco,  Algiers,  and  Tunis,  but  they  have 
done  little  more  than  pioneer  work  as  yet,  reaching 
the  Berbers,  rather  than  the  Arabs,  largely  through 
medical  practice  and  work  among  the  women 
and  children.  They  have  found  the  French 
government  of  Algiers,  and  now  of  Tunis,  hostile 
rather  than  friendly.  The  Sahara  is  still  un- 
touched. 

Madagascar. — The  island  of  Madagascar 
became  known  to  Europe  early  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  the  Portuguese  attempted  coloniza- 
tion as  early  as  1 506,  but  repeated  efforts  by  them, 
the  Dutch,  and  the  French,  failed  through  the 
ferocity  of  the  natives,  until  in  1640  the  French 
secured  a  footing.  Their  complicity  with  the 
slave-trade,  however,  kept  up  the  animosity  of 
the  natives,  and  for  a  century  and  a  half  there 
was  a  series  of  successes  and  failures.  Early  in 
the  present  century  the  English  governor  of 
Mauritius,  determined  to  stop  the  trade,  threw 
all  his  influence  (181 1)  in  favor  of  the  new  chief 
of  the  Hova  tribe,  hitherto  one  of  the  weakest, 
and  assisted  him  to  secure  an  ascendancy  over 
the  other  tribes,  Sakalavas,  Betsileos,  etc.  Ra- 
dama  was  a  man  of  great  force  of  character  and 


AFRICA  125 

ability,  and  entered  cordially  into  the  English 
plans,  and  when  (18 18)  the  London  Missionary 
Society  sent  two  missionaries  to  the  island  they 
were  cordially  received.  Others  followed,  and 
through  Radama's  reign  every  facility  was  given 
them.  He  was  succeeded  by  Queen  Ranavalona 
I.  (1827-61),  who  used  every  means  to  destroy 
Christianity,  but  without  success,  the  Christians 
growing  in  numbers  constantly.  Radama  II. 
invited  back  the  missionaries,  who  had  been  ex- 
pelled, and  from  that  time  the  work  advanced 
rapidly.  In  1866  the  Friends'  Foreign  Mission- 
ary Society  and  the  Norwegian  Society  came  to 
the  assistance  of  the  London  Society,  and  each 
in  its  own  field  was  most  successful,  until  the 
Madagascar  missions  were  looked  upon  as  almost 
ideal  in  their  condition,  although  most  in  the 
other  tribes  were  still  bitterly  opposed.  The 
missions  have  of  late  been  passing  through  bitter 
experiences.  France  having  resolved  to  reassert 
her  claims  to  the  island,  based  on  her  early  colo- 
nies, a  war  followed  (1896),  resulting  in  much 
damage  to  the  country,  and  the  final  overthrow 
of  the  Hova  government.  The  Jesuits,  whose 
efforts  had  always  attended  the  French  colonies, 
took  advantage  of  the  change,  and  for  a  time  it 
seemed  as  if  the  Enghsh  missions  would  be  de- 
stroyed. On  the  special  request  of  the  Enghsh 
societies,  the  Paris  Evangelical  Society  entered 
the  field,  assumed  a  portion  of  the  work,  and 
undertook  the  representation  of  the  Christian 
communities  before  the  government  at  Paris. 
As  a  result  the  situation  improved  very  much, 
and  missions  were  placed,  in  some  respects,  on  a 
better  footing  than  ever.  Missions  in  Madagas- 
car have  had  the  advantage  of  a  uniform  language 


126  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

for  all  the  tribes,  with  only  slight  dialectic  varia- 
tions, and  singular  freedom  from  many  disturbing 
influences.  On  the  other  hand,  the  general  con- 
dition of  morals  is  very  low,  and  while  the  Hovas 
especially  show  good  ability,  many  of  the  others 
are  still  little  more  than  savages. 


Ill 

THE  LEVANT 

The  term  "  Levant "  is  strictly  limited  to  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt.  It  often,  however, 
includes  Greece,  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  east- 
ern Turkey,  with  Mesopotamia  and,  more  rarely, 
Persia  and  Arabia.  It  is  used  here  in  the  largest 
sense.  To  the  Protestant  Church  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  it  presented  no  attraction,  and 
there  seems  to  have  been  no  mention  of  its  claims 
on  missionary  interest.  Even  Carey  and  his  im- 
mediate successors  had  no  thought  of  reaching 
any  of  its  races,  and  it  was  not  until  far  more  dis- 
tant regions  had  been  entered  that  this  section,  so 
near,  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  Church. 
This  was  by  Claudius  Buchanan,  who  had  already, 
as  chaplain  of  the  Bengal  Presidency  in  India, 
become  interested  in  missionary  efforts.  He 
presented  his  views  to  the  Church  Missionary 
Society  (1811),  and  as  a  result  a  missionary  was 
sent  (181 5)  to  Egypt  by  that  society.  He  was 
followed  the  next  year  by  a  representative  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  who  was  stationed  at 
Malta,  then  even  more  than  now  in  direct  com- 
munication with  all  parts  of  the  Levant.  Appa- 
rently neither  felt  that  the  opportunity  for  direct 
127 


128  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

missionary  work  was  great,  for  both  left  that  and 
entered  the  service  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  which  had  already  interested  itself 
in  procuring  versions  of  the  Scriptures  for  Turks 
and  Arabs  as  well  as  for  Greeks  and  Armenians. 
The  foundation  laid  by  them  was  a  most  valuable 
element  in  the  later  work. 

American  Missions.— The  first  permanent 
mission  work  in  this  section  was  commenced  by 
the  American  Board,  which  sent  out  two  men — 
Pliny  Fisk  and  Levi  Parsons — in  1 8 1 9.  Although 
they  had  no  definite  instructions  it  was  evidently 
the  idea  that  their  attention  would  be  turned  es- 
pecially to  work  among  the  Jews,  as  Jerusalem 
was  their  objective  point.  Landing,  however,  at 
Smyrna,  they  decided  that  one  should  remain 
there  and  endeavor  to  reach  the  Greeks,  who 
offered  a  most  attractive  field,  while  the  other 
should  go  to  Jerusalem.  With  the  coming  of  as- 
sociates journeys  were  made  up  the  Nile  and  in 
Palestine,  but  the  ill  health  of  one  led  them  for 
the  summer  to  the  slopes  of  Lebanon.  It  soon 
became  evident  that  work  in  Jerusalem  did  not 
offer  promise  of  much  success,  and  Beirut  was 
selected  (1824)  as  the  best  location  for  a  mission 
station,  although  the  mission  press,  which  had 
already  been  sent,  was  set  up  at  Malta,  out  of 
reach  of  the  Turkish  government.  Then  followed 
renewed  explorations  in  northern  Syria.  Con- 
stantinople and  Athens  were  visited,  and  in  1829 
Eli  Smith  and  H.  G.  O.  Dwight  commenced  their 
long  journey  through  Asiatic  Turkey,  the  Cau- 
casus, and  Persia,  which  opened  up  to  the  Chris- 
tian world  the  condition  of  the  Oriental  Churches 
as  nothing  else  had,  and  brought  them  face  to 
face  with  the  problem  of  missions  in  that  whole 
region, 


THE   LEVANT  1 29 

The    Missionary    Problem.— This     was 

threefold.  First,  not  merely  in  power,  but  in 
extent,  was  Islam.  The  Turkish  government, 
theocratic  in  its  conception,  autocratic  in  its  form, 
yet  curiously  democratic  in  some  respects,  and 
absolutely  despotic  in  its  practice,  had  the  cordial 
support  of  Turks,  Arabs,  and  Kurds,  as  well  as 
of  the  races  of  mixed  blood  in  Syria,  Egypt,  and 
Mesopotamia.  The  Moslem  was  everywhere  and 
always  the  ruler.  Next  came  Judaism,  repre- 
sented by  scattered  colonies  around  the  shores 
of  the  ^gean,  in  Smyrna,  Constantinople,  and 
Salonica,  very  few  being  in  Palestine.  They  were 
chiefly  of  Spanish  origin,  descendants  of  those 
expelled  from  Spain  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  third  element  was  the  Oriental  Church,  in- 
cluding the  Greek,  Armenian,  Jacobite,  Nestorian, 
and  Coptic  Churches,  while  the  Maronites  of 
Syria  and  some  Syrians,  or  Chaldeans,  as  they 
were  variously  called,  in  northern  Syria  and 
Mesopotamia,  represented  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  general  conditions  presented  by 
each  were  not  dissimilar.  All  were,  with  occa- 
sional individual  exceptions,  ignorant  and  bigoted. 
The  contempt  of  the  Moslem  for  Jew  and  Chris- 
tian was  fully  matched  by  the  jealousy  and 
hatred  of  each  Christian  community  for  every 
other  as  well  as  for  the  Turk.  This  had  been 
fostered  by  the  peculiar  political  and  civil  organi- 
zation of  the  empire,  by  which  each  religion  was 
recognized  as  constituting  a  civil  community, 
while  ecclesiastics  were  not  only  priests,  but  gov- 
ernment ofiicials.  Taxation  being  distributed 
among  the  communities,  it  was  for  the  interest 
of  each  to  keep  as  distinct  as  possible  from  all 
others,  and  rival  interests  reinforced  traditional 
jealousies,  until  the  empire  presented  the  appear- 


130  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

ance  of  a  number  of  distinct  and  mutually  hostile 
nations  held  in  subservience  to  a  most  bitter  des- 
potism by  overwhelming  force. 

The  Plan  Adopted.— The  researches  by 
Messrs.  Smith  and  Dwight  strengthened  the  con- 
viction already  felt  that  the  most  hopeful  field  for 
missionary  effort  was  presented  by  the  Oriental 
Churches.  There  were  a  number  of  individuals 
in  them  who  manifested  a  sincere  desire  for  a 
purer  worship  and  truer  Christian  life,  and  at  first 
even  the  ecclesiastics  seemed  to  welcome  the  as- 
sistance of  the  missionaries  in  providing  education 
and  enlightenment  for  their  people.  It  was  also 
felt  that  as  Islam  had  in  a  measure  owed  its 
strength  to  a  devitalized  Christianity,  if  it  could 
be  met  with  a  reformed  native  Church  it  might 
be  more  easily  overcome  than  if  foreigners  were 
to  undertake  to  meet  it.  The  Jews  seemed  al- 
most inaccessible  in  their  bigotry  and  bitter 
hatred  of  Christianity.  It  was  therefore  practi- 
cally if  not  formally  decided  that  while  Jews  and 
Moslems  were  to  be  reached  as  there  was  oppor- 
tunity, the  great  effort  was  to  be  among  the 
Christians  who  with  the  name  had  so  little  of  the 
life  of  Christianity.  This  settled,  there  came  up 
the  question  as  to  the  way  in  which  this  plan  was 
to  be  carried  out.  Here  again  the  answer  given 
was  plain.  These  Churches  were  Christian 
Churches,  weak  and  in  some  respects  corrupt,  yet 
Christian,  not  only  in  name,  but  to  a  consider- 
able degree  in  fact.  In  the  remoter  sections  of 
the  interior  it  was  hard  at  times  to  recognize  more 
than  the  name.  In  the  cities,  however,  as  al- 
ready stated,  there  were  not  a  few  who  manifested 
by  word  and  life  their  interest  in  evangelical  faith. 
To  reach  these,  increase  their  number  as  much  as 
possible,  and  thus  create  a  pressure  upon  the  ec- 


THE    LEVANT  I3I 

clesiastics  for  a  reform,  was  the  work  to  which 
the  missionaries  in  every  section  set  themselves. 
There  was  no  thought  of  estabHshing  a  separate 
or  rival  Church.  The  simple  purpose  was  to 
develop  within  the  old  Churches  an  element 
which  should  itself  procure  their  reform. 

Extension.— Within  twelve  years  after  the 
landing  of  Fisk  and  Parsons  the  work  was  well 
under  way,  and  the  occupation  of  the  field  went 
on  rapidly.  In  Syria  there  had  been  a  storm  of 
persecution  raised  by  the  Maronite  patriarch  and 
ending  in  the  death  of  the  well-known  Asaad-esh- 
Shidiak,  the  martyr  of  Lebanon,  and  the  tem- 
porary closing  of  the  schools  and  withdrawal  of 
the  missionaries  to  Malta.  They,  however,  re- 
turned in  1830,  and,  under  the  superintendence 
of  Eli  Smith,  the  printing-press,  which  has  since 
been  so  effective  an  agency,  was  established.  In 
Greece,  Jonas  King  and  the  Episcopal  mission- 
aries were  meeting  with  Httle  more  than  some 
educational  success.  Smyrna,  with  its  mixed 
population — Greek,  Armenian,  and  Turkish — 
and  a  printing-press,  was  the  chief  station  in  Asia 
Minor;  but  the  occupation  of  Constantinople 
(1831)  and  the  rapid  establishment  of  stations 
in  Asia  Minor  made  it  evident  that  the  campaign 
had  commenced  in  earnest.  In  1 833  missionaries 
opened  work  among  the  Nestorians  of  the  Perso- 
Turkish  border,  and  a  little  later  among  the  Ja- 
cobites of  Mesopotamia.  Until  about  1850  the 
American  Board  was  alone  in  the  field,  except 
that  Jewish  missions  had  been  established  by 
English  societies  in  some  of  the  cities.  About 
1849  the  first  missionary  of  the  Associate  Re- 
formed Church  (U.  S.  A.)  commenced  work  in 
Damascus,  which  was  afterward  handed  over  to 
the  Irish  Presbyterians,  and  he  ( 1 854)  joined  some 


132  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

associates  in  starting  a  mission  to  the  Copts  in 
Egypt.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  reen- 
tered the  field  in  1851,  and  by  arrangement  took 
Palestine,  the  American  Board  retaining  Syria. 
It  was  joined  (1856)  by  the  Reformed  Presbyte- 
rian Synod  (Covenanter),  which  undertook  work 
among  the  pagan  Nusairiyeh  of  northern  Syria. 
In  1857  ^  mission  to  the  Bulgarians  was  com- 
menced by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
followed  the  next  year  by  one  under  the  care  of 
the  American  Board,  but  south  of  the  Balkan 
range.  By  i860  very  nearly  the  entire  field  had 
been  occupied.  The  Druse  massacres  in  that 
year  in  Syria  were  followed  by  a  special  interest 
in  that  country,  a  large  number  of  missionary 
schools  were  started  by  English  societies,  and  the 
Friends  commenced  work  on  the  Lebanon.  In 
1870,  on  the  withdrawal  from  the  American 
Board  of  the  New-school  Presbyterians,  the  mis- 
sions in  Syria  and  Persia  were  handed  over  to 
the  Presbyterian  Board,  which  afterward  took 
also  the  Mesopotamia  work  at  Mosul.  The 
Southern  Presbyterians  also,  in  1874,  entered 
Greece  and  Macedonia. 

Opposition. — This  rapid  extension  of  the 
work  was  in  the  face  of  bitter  opposition,  com- 
ing chiefly  from  the  ecclesiastics,  although  there 
was  much  personal  hostility  to  those  who  listened 
to  what  were  termed  the  new  teachings.  A  few, 
indeed,  were  shrewd  and  far-sighted  enough  to 
see  the  advantages  that  might  result  from  reform 
in  the  Church,  and  especially  from  alliance  with 
foreign  influences.  The  great  mass,  however, 
looked  upon  every  attendant  on  Protestant  ser- 
vices as  false  not  merely  to  the  Church,  but  to 
the  nation,  and  thus  weakening  the  strength  of 
his  own  people  in  their  constant  fight  against  the 


THE    LEVANT  I 33 

oppression  of  the  Turk.  At  first  the  attitude  was 
one  of  obstruction.  Fair  words  were  given  and 
promises  were  made  to  secure  delay.  As,  how- 
ever, it  became  apparent  that  the  number  of  Bible- 
readers  and  -students  was  increasing,  the  clergy 
took  alarm,  repressive  measures  were  adopted, 
and  at  last  the  full  force  of  excommunication  was 
hurled  at  those  who  had  anything  to  do  with  the 
missionaries.  The  seriousness  of  this  act  con- 
sisted in  the  fact  that  it  denationalized  all  whom 
it  affected.  Expelled  from  their  Church,  they 
were  no  longer  members  of  their  nation,  and  no 
longer  had  any  civil  status  of  any  kind.  They 
could  collect  no  debts,  could  neither  be  married 
nor  buried,  had  no  position  before  the  govern- 
ment of  the  land.  This  fact  rendered  it  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  the  missionaries  to  intervene 
and  secure  some  sort  of  recognition  from  the 
Turkish  government.  As  an  essential  prelimi- 
nary under  the  existing  conditions,  an  evangelical 
or  Protestant  church  was  organized  in  Constan- 
tinople in  1846,  and  the  next  year,  with  this  as  a 
nucleus,  the  Protestant  community  was  recog- 
nized. Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  missionaries 
had  met  with  the  greatest  success  among  the 
Armenians,  the  contest  was  chiefly  over  them, 
though  other  communities  suffered  likewise  and 
shared  in  the  benefits  resulting  from  the  new  or- 
ganization. Thus  it  came  about  that  one 
prominent  element  in  the  missionary  plan  was 
changed,  not  by  their  wish,  but  by  force  of  the 
opposition  of  the  priesthood.  From  that  time 
the  Protestant  or  evangelical  community,  as  it 
was  variously  called,  became  a  distinct  factor  in 
the  empire  in  many  ways.  It  grew  rapidly  in 
power  as  it  covered  increased  territory.  It  met 
with  opposition,  but  it  commanded  respect  and 


134  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

exerted  an  influence  not  merely  religious,  but  civil, 
out  of  all  proportion  to  its  size. 

Development.  — In  this  development,  how- 
ever, the  original  idea  of  the  missionaries  was 
not  lost  sight  of.  Although  the  strengthening  of 
the  Protestant  community  became  a  necessity, 
there  was  no  effort  to  weaken  the  old  Churches. 
They  were  antagonized  as  little  as  possible. 
Polemical  preaching  was  seldom  used.  In  the 
pulpit,  by  the  teacher,  and  in  ordinary  conversa- 
tion emphasis  was  laid  upon  the  Christian  hfe 
rather  than  upon  the  form  of  creed  or  the  ritual 
of  worship.  Whenever  possible,  cordial  relations 
with  priests  and  members  of  the  old  communities 
were  kept  up,  and  while  there  was  no  condoning 
of  error,  stress  was  laid,  not  on  error,  but  on  truth. 
The  ease  with  which  this  was  done,  however, 
varied  greatly  with  different  communities.  With 
the  Greeks  it  was  perhaps  most  difficult.  In 
Syria,  among  the  Maronites,  it  was  the  same. 
There  aggressive  Protestantism  was  necessary. 
So  also,  though  in  somewhat  less  degree,  among 
the  Copts  of  Egypt  and  the  Jacobites  of  Meso- 
potamia. The  Nestorians  of  Persia  were  in  some 
respects  the  most  approachable,  while  the  Bul- 
garians welcomed  the  new  ideas,  but  thought  it 
unnecessary  to  leave  their  own  Church.  Among 
the  Armenians  also  there  was  considerable  differ- 
ence in  different  localities.  In  eastern  Turkey, 
the  home  of  their  nation,  they  resisted  most  en- 
ergetically the  advance  of  Protestantism.  South 
of  the  Taurus,  and  wherever  the  use  of  the  Turk- 
ish language  under  the  pressure  of  the  Turk  had 
become  general,  they  were  more  easily  reached, 
the  Protestant  communities  were  the  largest,  and 
the  relations  with  the  old  Churches  the  most 
pleasant. 


THE    LEVANT  I35 

Methods:  Education.— Aside  from  preach- 
ing, in  its  various  forms  of  personal  conversation, 
regular  discourse,  etc.,  great  stress  was  laid  upon 
education  and  the  securing  of  correct  versions  of 
the  Bible,  especially  in  the  modern  or  colloquial 
languages.  Schools  were  established  everywhere, 
at  first  chiefly  for  children  and  for  the  training 
of  preachers  and  teachers.  As  the  communities 
grew  in  size  the  grades  increased  until  a  system 
as  complete  as  that  in  other  countries  was  organ- 
ized. This  awakened  the  general  desire  for  im- 
provement, and  the  other  Churches  were  forced 
to  enter  into  competition.  Cities,  towns,  and 
villages  over  all  the  empire,  on  the  slopes  of 
Lebanon,  the  table-land  of  Asia  Minor,  the  plains 
of  Mesopotamia,  the  valleys  of  Kurdistan,  the 
banks  of  the  Nile,  had  their  supply  of  schools, 
not  merely  Protestant,  but  Armenian,  Greek, 
Maronite,  Jacobite,  Coptic ;  and  even  the  Turks 
caught  the  infection,  and  Moslem  children  learned 
to  read  who  never  would  have  done  so  but  for 
the  impulse  given  by  the  missionaries.  Schools 
necessitated  colleges,  and  within  fifteen  years 
after  the  organization  of  the  first  Protestant 
church,  Robert  College  at  Constantinople  and 
the  Syrian  Protestant  College  at  Beirut  were 
commencing  their  work  with  its  immeasurable 
results.  Then  followed  others  at  Harput,  Mar- 
sovan,  and  Aintab  in  Turkey,  Osiout  in  Egypt, 
Urumia  in  Persia,  and  an  institute,  practically  a 
college,  in  Samokov,  Bulgaria.  By  1872  the 
College  for  Girls  at  Constantinople  had  com- 
menced in  a  quiet  way,  the  outcome  of  work  in- 
augurated forty  years  before  by  Mrs.  W.  G. 
Schauffler  at  Smyrna,  and  given  an  impulse  to 
the  many  schools  of  scarcely  inferior  grade  over 
all  the  empire. 


136  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

Bible  Translation  and  Distribution.— 

No  one  department  of  mission  work  has  stood 
out  more  prominently  in  the  Levant  than  this, 
and  in  no  field  have  there  been  greater  achieve- 
ments. The  Arabic  version,  commenced  by  Eli 
Smith  and  completed  by  C.  V.  A.  Van  Dyck,  and 
printed  and  bound  at  Beirut  under  the  auspices 
of  the  American  Bible  Society,  is  one  of  the 
finest  results  of  scholarship,  and  its  circulation 
among  the  entire  Arabic-speaking  world  of  Asia, 
Africa,  and  the  East  Indies  is  surpassed  by  few. 
Then  came  the  Turkish  versions,  prepared  at 
Constantinople  by  the  British  and  American  so- 
cieties, to  which  William  Goodell,  W.  G.  Schauf- 
fler,  Elias  Riggs,  A.  T.  Pratt,  George  F.  Herrick, 
and  R.  H.  Weakley  contributed.  Modernized 
versions  of  the  Armenian  and  Bulgarian  Bibles 
were  prepared  by  Dr.  Riggs,  assisted  in  the  latter 
by  A.  L.  Long,  and  of  the  Syriac  for  the  Nesto- 
rians  by  Justin  Perkins  and  his  associates.  The 
circulation  of  these  by  the  two  Bible  societies, 
chiefly  from  the  Bible  House  at  Constantinople, 
erected  by  Isaac  G.  Bliss,  has  been  one  of  the 
most  effective  means  for  the  spread  of  evangehcal 
truth.  There  has  been  also  distributed  a  version 
of  the  modern  Greek  prepared  by  the  British 
society,  and  a  revised  edition  of  the  ancient 
Armenian,  very  dear  to  the  people,  by  the  Ameri- 
can society.  Other  versions,  not  all  complete, 
are  the  Persian,  Ararat-Armenian,  Azerbaijan- 
Turkish,  and  Kurdish. 

In  this  connection  reference  should  be  made 
to  the  great  influence  of  books  and  tracts  pub- 
lished at  Constantinople,  Beirut,  and  Urumia,  and 
especially  to  the  weekly  and  monthly  newspapers 
in  Armenian,  Turkish  (Armenian  and  Greek  char- 
acters), Bulgarian,  Greek,  Arabic,  and  Syriac. 


THE    LEVANT  I37 

Native  Churches.— The  organization  of 
native  churches,  made  necessary  by  the  harsh 
persecutions,  became  an  essential  method  of  ex- 
tending mission  work.  Various  problems  arose, 
whose  solution  was  worked  out  in  practice  rather 
than  thought  out  in  council.  The  ecclesiastical 
organization  was  of  the  simplest,  generally  of  the 
same  character  as  that  of  the  Congregational 
churches  of  New  England.  This  was  due  not 
merely  to  the  familiarity  of  the  missionaries  with 
and  their  natural  preference  for  it,  but  to  the 
desire  of  the  native  Christians  themselves.  Ex- 
communicated from  the  old  Churches,  they  were 
inclined  to  go  to  the  other  extreme  of  simplicity 
in  ritual  and  church  government,  and  found  the 
same  relief  in  the  absence  of  form  as  the  Puritans 
and  Independents  of  England  had.  With  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  local  churches  and  the 
necessity  of  mutual  relations  and  a  wider  eccle- 
siastical organization,  various  plans  were  adopted, 
varying  from  unions,  chiefly  among  the  Arme- 
nians, very  similar  to  Congregational  associations, 
to  fully  organized  presbyteries,  in  Egypt,  Syria, 
and  Persia.  In  no  case  was  there  any  effort  to 
force  a  foreign  system,  and  the  desires  of  the 
native  Christians  were  consulted  fully. 

Self-support. — More  essential,  in  the  view  of 
the  missionaries,  was  the  question  of  self-support, 
which  was  recognized  as  an  essential  to  genuine 
independence  and  development.  The  situation, 
however,  was  peculiarly  difficult.  The  people 
were  poor,  and  the  converts  comparatively  few  in 
number  and  scattered.  Excommunication  de- 
stroyed not  only  their  civil  status,  but  prevented 
their  earning  a  livelihood.  In  many  cases  there 
was  great  destitution.  For  the  most  part,  services 
were  held  in  the  dwellings  of  missionaries  or 


138  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

Other  private  houses.  As  chapels  and  churches 
became  necessary,  and  the  people  could  not  fur- 
nish them,  the  missionaries  did.  Similarly,  schools 
were  supplied,  and  preachers  and  teachers.  The 
grace  of  giving  was  earnestly  inculcated,  but 
there  was  very  little  to  give.  The  result  was  that 
in  most  sections  the  churches  were  almost  abso- 
lutely dependent  on  the  missionaries.  With  the 
development  of  work  in  eastern  Turkey  an  ear- 
nest effort  was  made  to  avoid  this  condition. 
The  general  situation  was  more  favorable,  and  a 
good  degree  of  self-support  was  secured.  In 
some  places,  as  Aintab  and  Marash  in  Turkey 
and  Osiout  in  Egypt,  where  there  were  large 
Protestant  communities,  the  problem  was  easily 
solved.  In  Syria,  the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor, 
Bulgaria,  and  Persia,  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  expense,  not  only  for  aggressive  missionary 
work,  but  for  the  local  needs,  was  met  by  mis- 
sionary funds.  Closely  connected  with  this 
question  has  been  that  of  the  relation  of  the  mis- 
sionaries to  the  natives.  In  the  earHer  stages  of 
the  work,  the  missionary  was  practically  autocrat. 
He  was  looked  up  to  by  the  people  as  their 
natural  guide,  and  usually  they  accepted  his 
counsel  unhesitatingly.  With  the  development 
of  a  trained  native  ministry  there  came  more  in- 
dependent opinions,  and  these  sometimes  clashed 
with  those  of  the  missionaries.  In  most  cases 
there  was  no  serious  trouble,  but  in  the  Armenian 
missions  at  one  time  there  was  a  strong  effort  on 
the  part  of  some  to  secure  absolute  control  of  the 
administration  of  mission  funds.  This  could  not 
be  granted,  but  plans  were  made  by  which  still 
more  of  mutual  consultation  was  secured,  and  the 
difficulty  was  overcome.  In  general  the  practice 
has  developed  of  preparing  estimates  together, 


THE    LEVANT  I 39 

and  giving  to  the  representatives  of  the  native 
churches  a  voice  in  the  use  of  foreign  funds  and 
absolute  control  over  those  raised  in  the  churches. 
Turkish  Government.— Through  the  whole 
history  of  missions  in  the  Levant  the  attitude  of 
the  Turkish  government  has  been  a  most  impor- 
tant factor.  At  first  it  was  careless,  looking  upon 
Protestants  merely  as  another  sect  of  Christians, 
having  no  particular  relation  to  it,  and  requiring 
no  special  notice.  In  general  it  cared  little  how 
often  Christians  changed  their  faith.  As  to 
Moslems  it  was  different.  For  them  there  was 
swift,  sure  punishment.  Two  specially  outra- 
geous executions  in  1843,  ^^^^^  years  after  the  new 
sultan,  Abdul-Medjid,  had  proclaimed  the  Hatti 
Sherif  of  Gulhane,  or  charter  of  civil  liberty, 
aroused  the  foreign  ambassadors,  and  they  de- 
manded and  secured  the  promise  that  change  of 
religion  should  not  be  punished  by  death.  Per- 
secution, however,  ostracism,  confiscation  of 
property,  false  imprisonment,  exile,  have  been 
and  still  are  the  rule,  attested  to  by  a  very  few 
marked  exceptions.  Through  the  reigns  of  Ab- 
dul-Medjid and  Abdul- Aziz  (1839-76)  the  mis- 
sionaries were  generally  unmolested  by  the 
government.  Their  work,  too,  was  in  the  main 
not  interfered  with,  at  least  seriously.  Local 
ofificials,  largely  under  the  influence  of  Armenian 
or  other  ecclesiastics,  made  some  trouble,  but  the 
central  government  granted  schools,  chapels,  and 
churches,  permitted  the  printing  and  importation 
of  Scriptures  and  books,  allowed  free  travel,  and, 
in  general,  was  not  unfavorable.  With  the  ad- 
vent of  Abdul-Hamid  IL  (1876),  however,  there 
came  a  change.  School  laws  were  made  more 
strict,  a  more  rigid  censorship  was  established, 
difficulties  were  put  in  the  way  of  travel,  and  in 


140  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

numberless  ways,  not  always  evident,  but  almost 
always  effective,  the  progress  of  Protestantism 
was  hampered.  This  is  not  the  place  to  detail 
the  terrible  events  of  1894-96,  although  in  a  full 
history  of  missions  they  would  require  extended 
notice.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  atrocities 
which  horrified  the  world  were  directed  against 
the  very  people  who,  under  the  influence  of  mis- 
sions, had  developed  a  conception  of  freedom 
and  true  citizenship.  This  was  manifest  in  the 
way  Protestant  pastors  and  teachers  were  at- 
tacked, and  leading  business  men,  and  in  the 
persistent  reports  that  the  missionaries  were  in- 
stigators of  treason  and  rebellion.  The  secret  of 
this  is  found  in  the  discovery  by  the  Turks  that 
the  Bible  and  its  precepts  are  inherently  antag- 
onistic to  the  Koran  and  its  precepts,  and  that 
one  or  the  other  must  in  time  yield.  Those 
atrocities  did  not  represent  the  Turkish  people, 
who  in  the  main  have  not  been  opposed  greatly 
to  Protestant  work,  but  were  the  distinctive  work 
of  the  Turkish  government,  and  represented  its 
hostility  to  Christian  missions  and  a  pure  Chris- 
tianity. Certain  fields  require  special  mention. 
Greece. — Mission  work  in  Greece  has  been 
from  the  beginning  more  educational  than  any- 
thing else.  Evangelistic  services  have  been  con- 
ducted, but  it  has  been  very  difificult  to  gather 
a  distinct  evangelical  community.  Dr.  Jonas 
King's  work  was  largely  personal,  and  that  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  almost  confined 
to  schools.  The  Southern  Presbyterian  mission 
at  Athens  and  Volo,  and  afterward  at  Salonica, 
accomplished  little,  and  was  given  up.  One  of 
its  missionaries,  the  Rev.  M.  D.  Kalopothakes, 
has,  however,  continued  his  efforts,  and  has 
gatJiered  an  evangelical  community  which  has 


THE    LEVANT  14I 

achieved  considerable  influence  even  against  the 
very  strong  opposition  of  the  Synod.  In  Asia 
Minor,  at  Smyrna,  on  the  Black  Sea  coast,  and 
at  some  places  in  the  interior,  work  among 
Greeks  has  been  much  more  encouraging. 

Egypt.  — In  Egypt  the  work  of  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  has  developed  rapidly. 
Numerous  and  successful  schools  have  been  es- 
tabhshed,  and  large  evangelical  communities  or- 
ganized at  Alexandria,  Cairo,  Osiout,  etc.  The 
Church  Missionary  Society  has  done  good  work 
among  the  Moslems,  and  especially  in  its  super- 
intendence of  Miss  Whately's  schools  in  Cairo. 
The  predominance  of  English  rule  has  been  of 
great  assistance. 

B  ulgaria.  —  Mission  work  in  Bulgaria  has  been 
directed  more  than  has  been  possible  in  some 
other  places  toward  the  general  reformation  of 
the  nation.  The  comparatively  small  size  of  the 
evangelical  community  is  more  than  overbalanced 
by  the  growth  of  the  conception  of  a  pure  Church 
and  a  successful  nation.  The  preaching  of  the 
missionaries  has  been  greatly  assisted  by  the 
weekly  paper  published  by  them,  and  the  educat- 
ing influence  of  Robert  College  has  been  very 
potent.  The  Bulgarian  evangehcals  have  been 
foremost  in  national  organizations,  and  their 
Evangehcal  Society  has  had  considerable  influ- 
ence. 

Persia. — Mission  work  in  Persia  commenced 
with  the  translation  of  the  New  Testament  by 
Henry  Martyn  (1811),  and  the  visit  of  C.  G. 
Pfander,  of  the  Basle  Society,  in  1829.  Then 
came  the  mission  of  the  American  Board  to  the 
Nestorians  (1833)  of  Urumia,  afterward  extended 
to  include  the  Armenians  of  Tabriz,  and  then 
south  to  Teheran  and  Hamadan,  under  the  Pres- 


142  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

byterian  Board.  The  Church  Missionary  Society 
estabhshed  a  mission  at  Julfa,  near  Ispahan,  in 
1869,  with  which  was  connected  a  station  at 
Bagdad.  A  High-church  mission  was,  after 
some  experiments,  organized  among  the  Nesto- 
rians,  in  1886,  for  the  special  purpose  of 
strengthening  the  old  Church.  The  work  among 
the  Nestorians  extended  to  those  in  the  mountains 
and  across  the  Turkish  border  in  the  vicinity  of 
Mosul,  which  station  was  afterward  transferred 
from  the  American  Board.  It  has  always  been 
rendered  difficult  by  the  depredations  of  the 
Kurds  and  the  uncertain  protection  of  the  Persian 
government,  although  that  has  not  been  as  hos- 
tile as  the  Turkish  government.  In  the  summer 
of  1897  the  Russian  Church  commenced  a  mis- 
sion which  threatens  the  extinction  of  the  old 
Nestorian  Church. 

Arabia.— Various  attempts  have  been  made 
to  enter  Arabia.  The  Free  Church  of  Scotland 
took  the  care  of  an  individual  mission  started  by 
Ion  Keith  Falconer  at  Sheikh  Othman,  near  Aden 
(1885),  and  more  recently  the  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church  in  America  has  adopted  a  somewhat 
similar  enterprise,  inaugurated  by  Professor  J.  G. 
Lansing,  and  centered  at  Busrah  (Bassorah). 
The  first  accomplished  little ;  the  latter  has  had 
better  success. 

Effect  upon  the  Eastern  Churches.— The 
result  of  missions  in  the  Levant  has  been  not 
merely  in  the  organization  of  evangelical  com- 
munities, but  in  modifying  the  old  Churches. 
Those  results  may  be  stated  in  brief.  The  Gre- 
gorian Armenian  Church  has  felt  the  influence 
most.  It  has  in  many  places  simplified  its  ritual, 
adopted  evangelical  preaching  and  Bible  instruc- 
tion, paid  more  attention  to  the  education  and 


THE    LEVANT  143 

character  of  its  priests,  and  has  so  far  lost  its 
opposition  to  Protestants  that  in  several  instances 
union  services  have  been  held,  and  the  most  fra- 
ternal of  relations  have  been  enjoyed.  In  some 
cases  missionaries  have  felt  that  the  time  is  close 
at  hand  when  a  reunion  of  the  two  is  feasible  in 
a  purified  Armenian  Church.  The  Greek  Church 
as  a  Church  retains  its  hostility,  although  in  indi- 
vidual cases  there  is  evident  the  effect  of  evan- 
gelical ideas.  The  Coptic  Church  itself  has  not 
manifested  much  sympathy  with  evangehcal  truth, 
and  various  attempts  at  reform  are  political  rather 
than  spiritual.  The  Jacobite  and  Nestorian 
Churches  vary  in  their  friendship  somewhat  ac- 
cording to  the  political  conditions ;  of  spiritual 
change  in  the  organizations  there  has  been  little  or 
none.  The  Bulgarian  people  manifest  the  effect 
of  evangelical  truth  to  a  greater  degree  than  do 
the  priests.  The  Church  retains  its  antagonism 
to  Protestantism,  although  movements  for  reform 
are  noticeable. 

Islam. — Of  converts  from  Islam  there  have 
been  very  few:  some  in  Egypt,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Enghsh  rule  ;  some  in  Persia ;  a  few  in 
Turkey.  Large  numbers  of  Scriptures  have  been 
sold  to  Moslems,  and  repeated  instances  are 
known  of  individuals  who  would  acknowledge 
themselves  Christians  but  for  the  fact  that  to  do 
so  would  be  almost  certain  death,  or  ruin,  not 
merely  to  them,  but  their  families.  There  have 
been  a  few  noble  examples  of  devotion  unto 
death,  but  as  yet  Islam  presents  an  unbroken 
front,  and  the  chief  sign  of  the  effect  of  the  gos- 
pel is  the  feverish  anxiety  to  get  rid  of  all  mis- 
sionaries and  to  destroy  Protestantism. 

The  work  of  missions  in  the  Levant  is  not  yet 
finished. 


IV 


INDIA 


The  history  of  the  development  of  missions  in 
India  commences  with  the  landing  of  Carey  at 
Calcutta  in  November,  1793.  Every  effort  pre- 
vious to  that  had  attained  a  certain  point  and 
then  stopped.  Greeks,  Nestorians,  and  Roman 
Catholics  had  all  been  attracted  by  the  land,  and 
had  raised  large  communities,  which  in  time  had 
either  disappeared  or  crystallized,  losing  almost 
all  but  the  form  of  Christianity.  Then  came  the 
Dutch,  carrying  the  Reformed  doctrine  as  a  sort 
of  addendum  to  their  trade,  and  losing  the  faith 
when  they  lost  colonial  rule.  More  successful, 
not  perhaps  in  numbers,  but  in  spiritual  fervor, 
was  the  Danish  work  of  Ziegenbalg  and  his  suc- 
cessors down  to  Schwartz,  just  closing  his  years 
of  service  at  Tanjore  as  Carey  sailed  up  the 
Hoogly.  Yet  this  had  spent  its  force  and 
dwindled  until,  when,  nearly  thirty  years  later, 
another  society  took  up  the  work,  little  more  was 
found  than  an  organization.  The  movement 
commenced  by  the  Baptist  journeyman  preacher 
has,  however,  continued  until  to-day.  Christian 
missions  are  advancing  at  a  rate  scarcely  dreamed 
of  as  possible  even  half  a  century  ago.  There  is 
a  Christian  community  of  recognized  power  in 
144 


INDIA  145 

the  land,  and  already  there  is  talk  of  a  National 
Church  of  India. 

Occupation  of  the  Field.  — It  is  a  some- 
what singular  fact  that  it  was  eleven  years  after 
Carey  landed  at  Calcutta  before  any  other  socie- 
ties entered  India.  In  1804  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  occupied  South  India,  extending 
its  work  in  successive  years  until,  by  1820,  it  had 
stations  on  both  the  east  and  west  shores  and  in 
North  India.  Other  societies,  however,  seem  to 
have  waited  for  a  change  in  the  charter  of  the 
East  India  Company  (18 13)  before  they  sent 
missionaries  to  the  great  field.  In  that  year  the 
Church  Missionary  Society,  already  in  a  degree 
represented  by  Henry  Martyn  as  chaplain,  sent 
one  of  his  converts  to  Agra  as  an  evangelist,  the 
Wesleyans  opened  their  work  in  Ceylon,  and  the 
American  Board  missionaries  effected  their  per- 
manent landing  at  Bombay.  The  next  reinforce- 
ment was  from  Scotland,  Dr.  Duff  coming  from 
the  Established  Church  in  1829.  Four  years 
later  the  Presbyterians  of  America  established 
their  work,  and  the  next  year  (1834)  the  Basle 
Society  joined  the  company,  the  Freewill  Baptists 
of  America  following  in  1835  and  joining  the 
General  Baptists  of  England,  who  had  separated 
from  the  Carey  mission  at  Serampore  in  1816. 
Then  came  the  Baptist  work  among  the  Telugus 
in  1836;  the  Lutherans  of  America  in  1840; 
and  the  United  Presbyterians  and  Methodists  of 
America  had  but  just  entered  the  field  when  the 
mutiny  of  1857  broke  up  most  of  the  existing 
work.  Out  of  the  ruins,  however,  sprang  a  larger 
and  more  extended  missionary  interest  and  an 
increase  of  aggressive  effort.  Among  the  move- 
ments immediately  started  were  the  work  of  the 
Christian    Vernacular    Education    Society,    the 


146  DEVELOPMENT    OE    THE    FIELD 

United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland,  the 
Welsh  Presbyterians,  and  others,  while  the  soci- 
eties already  in  the  field  extended  their  efforts  as 
rapidly  as  possible.  Mention  should  also  be 
made  of  the  zenana  societies  and  those  for 
promoting  female  education  started  before  the 
mutiny,  while  Gossner's  society  had  commenced 
its  marvelous  work  among  the  Kols.  There  were 
also  a  number  of  individual  or  faith  missions  of 
various  kinds,  one  of  which,  at  ElHchpur,  became 
the  nucleus  for  the  work  of  the  Christian  and 
Missionary  Alliance.  At  the  present  time  almost 
the  only  organizations  for  general  mission  work 
not  represented  in  India  are  the  French,  Dutch, 
and  Norwegian  societies,  and  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  of  the  United  States.  They  are 
also  so  distributed  as  to  cover  the  whole  empire, 
not  merely  the  British,  but  the  native  states,  and 
to  reach  every  class  of  people. 

The  East  India  Company.— This  politico- 
commercial  organization  played  as  important  a 
part  in  the  preparation  for  missions  in  India  as 
discovery  has  in  Africa.  The  charter  of  this 
company,  signed  on  the  last  day  of  1600  by 
Queen  Elizabeth,  recognized  simply  the  needs 
and  opportunities  of  trade.  In  accordance  with 
this,  httle  was  done  except  to  establish  factories 
and  trade  centers  in  various  parts  on  both  the 
east  and  west  coasts.  Constantly,  however, 
coming  into  conflict  with  the  Mohammedan  and 
Marathi  rulers,  the  company  decided,  in  1689,  to 
consolidate  its  position  on  the  basis  of  territorial 
sovereignty,  and  changed  its  clerks  and  agents 
throughout  the  land  into  officials.  Calcutta, 
Madras,  and  Bombay  were  even  then  the  centers. 
The  death  of  Aurangzeb  (1707)  practically  freed 
South  India  from  the  Moslem  Moguls  at  Delhi, 


INDIA  147 

and  the  defeat  of  the  French  (1744-60)  left  the 
English  masters  of  the  Carnatic.  In  1757  came 
the  terrible  Black  Hole  tragedy  at  Calcutta,  fol- 
lowed by  the  destruction  of  the  powerful  nawabs 
of  Bengal,  and  the  way  was  opened  for  the  great 
work  of  Warren  Hastings  in  organizing  the 
empire.  The  general  principle  was  that  of  plac- 
ing in  control  of  the  different  native  states  men 
who  could  be  relied  upon  to  favor  British  inter- 
ests and  preserve  peace.  Occasionally  one  of 
them  revolted,  but  invariably  paid  the  penalty. 
A  few  alhances  of  native  states  were  formed, 
especially  in  western  India,  but  the  overthrow  of 
the  Marathi  power  and  of  the  central  Indian 
Moslem  rulers  not  only  contributed  to  Enghsh 
prestige,  but  established  English  rule.  In  all  this, 
however,  there  was  one  constant  pohcy:  to  re- 
press any  insurrection,  even  the  manifestation  of 
hostihty,  promptly  and  effectively,  but  to  do  as 
little  as  possible  to  arouse  antagonisms.  So  long 
as  Enghsh  predominance  was  secured,  native  cus- 
toms and  prejudices  were  interfered  with  no  more 
than  was  absolutely  necessary.  Any  elements, 
therefore,  which  might  tend  to  excite  the  religious 
fanaticism  of  the  people  or  weaken  the  authority 
of  officials  were  not  merely  discouraged,  but  op- 
posed. The  Danish  missionaries  of  Tranquebar, 
having  a  recognized  position  and  being  honored 
by  the  natives,  were  favored  also  by  the  British, 
and  Schwartz  was  frequently  employed  in  em- 
bassies to  the  native  princes.  The  advent  of 
Carey,  however,  was  looked  upon  with  suspicion, 
and  when  Henry  Martyn  wanted  to  represent  the 
Church  of  England  in  mission  work  he  was 
compelled  to  take,  instead  a  chaplaincy,  and  do 
what  he  could,  in  a  sense,  at  second  hand. 
Under  the  influence  of  good  men  in  the  board 


148  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

of  directors,  efforts  were  made  to  provide  the 
resident  Englishmen  with  church  privileges,  and 
some  would  have  been  glad  to  influence  the 
natives ;  but  in  the  main  the  idea  of  the  officials 
was  that  the  native  religions  were,  on  the  whole, 
better  adapted  to  the  people  of  the  land,  and 
Islam,  Hinduism,  Buddhism,  were  encouraged 
and  even  assisted.  With  the  commencement  of 
the  present  century,  however,  there  came  a 
change.  The  new  charter  (181 3)  expressed  the 
broader  views  of  the  company.  The  American 
missionaries  secured  the  right  to  reside  in  Bom- 
bay, and  afterward  the  work  of  missionaries  of 
every  class  was  encouraged,  although  such  re- 
strictions as  were  deemed  essential  to  the  preserv- 
ing of  order  were  enforced.  This  was  largely 
due  to  such  men  as  the  Lawrences,  Edwardes, 
Havelock,  and  others.  The  great  mutiny  (1857) 
proved  the  end  of  the  company,  and  the  procla- 
mation of  Victoria  Empress  of  India  (1858)  in- 
troduced a  new  order,  in  which,  while  care  is 
taken  to  mete  out  justice  to  all  and  to  infringe 
on  no  rights,  Christianity  is  recognized  as  the  re- 
ligion of  the  government,  and  its  propagation  as 
a  legitimate  enterprise.  From  the  experiences  of 
Carey  and  Judson  this  company  is  often  looked 
upon  as  merely  a  hindrance.  Unquestionably  it 
did  not  intentionally  assist  or  even  countenance 
missionary  effort,  yet  none  the  less  truly  was  it 
of  great  service  to  the  cause  of  missions  and  a 
most  important  factor  in  their  development. 

The  Missionary  Problem.— Broadly 
speaking,  the  missionaries  found  the  people 
divided  into  three  classes:  the  Brahmins,  high 
and  low  caste ;  the  Moslems ;  and  the  Pariahs,  or 
outcastes.  (The  Buddhists  of  India  are  chiefly 
in  Burma,  and  will  be   spoken   of  in   the  next 


INDIA  149 

chapter.)  The  high-caste  Brahmins  looked  with 
scorn  on  the  foreigners ;  the  low  castes  were  ab- 
solutely under  the  domination  of  the  high  castes, 
and  however  much  they  might  look  with  longing 
for  a  better  condition,  they  were  for  the  most 
part  fully  possessed  with  the  necessity  of  keep- 
ing what  privileges  they  had,  or  hopeless  of  any 
betterment.  In  either  case  they  offered  little 
encouragement.  The  Moslems  were  on  the 
whole  more  approachable  than  those  of  Persia 
or  Turkey,  at  least  where  they  formed  a  large 
element  of  the  population.  Still  they  were  not 
encouraging.  The  outcastes  offered  in  some  re- 
spects the  most  inviting  field,  their  degraded  con- 
dition appealing  most  eloquently  to  the  mission 
spirit.  At  the  same  time,  it  was  evident  that  the 
other  classes  must  be  reached  if  Christianity  was 
to  conquer  the  land,  and,  in  contrast  with  the 
failure  of  Xavier's  successors,  the  experience  of 
the  Danish  mission  had  shown  that  they  were 
accessible.  From  the  very  first  it  has  been  rec- 
ognized that  the  success  of  Christian  missions 
depended  upon  their  abihty  to  meet  and  over- 
come the  Brahmin  power.  However  much 
might  be  done  among  the  outcastes  or  even  the 
low  castes,  so  long  as  the  high  castes  held  their 
own  and  were  able  to  overawe  the  rest,  the  vic- 
tory could  not  be  complete.  The  truth  of  this 
was  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  Roman 
Catholic  work,  chiefly  among  these  outcastes  or 
the  lowest  castes,  had  not  spread  to  any  great 
degree,  but  had  been  confined  to  those  sections 
in  the  Madras  Presidency  where  they  were  in 
large  numbers.  In  Bengal,  Bombay,  and  North 
India  they  accomplished  little  or  nothing,  yet 
there  was  where  the  contest  must  chiefly  lie. 
The  very  center  of  the  missionary  problem  was 


150  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

the  Brahmin.  Without  neglecting  others,  while 
making  every  effort  to  reach  the  poorest  and 
most  degraded,  the  missionary  effort  must  be 
directed  to  this  class.  Even  Islam  was  secon- 
dary. Its  power  lay  largely  there,  as  elsewhere, 
in  political  prestige ;  that  gone,  its  hold  on  others, 
and  even  on  its  own  people,  is  weakened. 

A  Propitious  Time.  — In  some  respects  the 
time  was  very  propitious.  English  rule  had 
gained  high  prestige,  where  it  was  not  in  actual 
power,  over  the  whole  country  south  of  the 
Himalayas.  Commerce  was  awakening  new 
thoughts  and  arousing  new  energies.  There  was 
a  constantly  increasing  desire  to  secure  the  fruits 
of  Western  enterprise,  even  if  Western  civiliza- 
tion, so  far,  at  least,  as  it  involved  Christianity,  was 
despised.  The  result  was  that  association  with 
foreigners  was  made  easier,  and  many  avenues 
for  personal  influence  were  opened  where  for- 
merly there  had  been  none.  Intercourse  also  be- 
tween different  parts  was  made  possible  by  the 
spread  of  English  rule  and  treaties,  and  sections 
hitherto  closed  to  all  foreigners  were  rapidly 
opened  to  the  missionary  as  well  as  to  the  trader. 
The  fact,  too,  that  the  peoples,  their  customs,  re- 
ligions, and  especially  their  languages,  had  already 
been  the  object  of  study,  made  the  first  steps 
much  easier  than  in  many  other  countries.  The 
Danish  missionaries  had  given  a  Tamil  version 
of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  means  were  at  hand 
for  preparing  versions  in  the  almost  innumerable 
dialects  of  the  land.  What  was  needed  was  the 
advent  of  men  with  broad  views  to  realize  the 
situation,  improve  the  opportunities,  and  give  the 
right  direction  to  missionary  enterprise. 

Carey's  Initiative.— The  first  work  of  the 
pioneer  missionary  was  directly  in  the  line  of  the 


INDIA  151 

solution  of  the  problem  as  given  above.  By  the 
closest  of  study  he  mastered  the  languages,  while, 
as  superintendent  of  an  indigo  factory,  he  in- 
formed himself  as  to  the  character  and  conditions 
of  the  people.  After  six  years  of  this  kind  of 
work  he  was  joined  by  Marshman  and  Ward, 
and  at  Serampore  was  started  the  press  which, 
by  its  publications  of  Scriptures  and  of  books  in 
every  department  of  literature,  commenced  the 
attack  on  the  great  systems  of  religious  and  philo- 
sophic thought  that  have  been  the  basis  of  the 
social  and  civil  life  of  India  for  centuries,  and 
before  which  they  are  already  showing  signs  of 
yielding.  Two  years  later  (1801)  the  Bengali 
New  Testament  was  printed,  the  forerunner  of 
the  Bible  (1809)  and  of  versions  of  the  Scriptures 
in  whole  or  in  part  in  twenty-four  languages  and 
dialects,  prepared  during  thirty  years  of  unceas- 
ing work.  Not  less  significant  of  his  conception 
of  the  work  of  a  missionary  were  his  acceptance 
of  the  professorship  of  Sanskrit,  Bengali,  and 
Marathi  in  the  new  Fort  William  College  at  Cal- 
cutta, and  his  services  to  philology  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  grammars  and  dictionaries  in  those 
languages  as  well  as  in  the  Telugu  and  Punjabi. 
In  all  this  his  idea  was  so  to  fit  himself  as  to  be 
able  most  effectively  to  meet  the  problem  of 
missions,  and  to  take  advantage  of  every  possible 
point  to  make  his  blows  more  effective.  Simi- 
larly, in  1 80 1,  he  wrote  to  his  society  urging  the 
use  of  education  in  English  as  a  means  of  attract- 
ing the  Brahmins  and  diffusing  a  knowledge  of 
the  gospel.  He  believed  in  preaching,  and  prac- 
tised his  belief  whether  at  the  indigo  factory  or 
at  Serampore.  He  built  his  first  church  in  1797, 
and  labored  constantly  for  the  conversion  of  in- 
dividuals.    His  conception,  however,  of  the  re- 


152  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

lation  of  church  organization  to  the  great  work 
of  undermining  and  destroying  the  system  which 
hindered  church  organization  is  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing quotations  from  a  letter  to  the  Baptists  in 
Burma  in  181 6,  just  after  Judson  had  joined 
them. 

"  We  know  not  what  your  immediate  expecta- 
tions are  relative  to  the  Burman  empire,  but  we 
hope  your  views  are  not  confined  to  the  imme- 
diate conversion  of  the  natives  by  the  preaching 
of  the  Word.  Could  a  church  of  converted 
natives  be  obtained  at  Rangun,  it  might  exist  for 
a  while,  or  be  scattered,  or  perish  for  want  of 
additions.  From  all  we  have  seen  hitherto  we 
are  ready  to  think  that  the  dispensations  of  Prov- 
idence point  to  labors  that  may  operate,  indeed, 
more  slowly  on  the  population,  but  more  effectu- 
ally in  the  end.  .  .  .  The  slow  progress  of  con- 
version in  such  a  mode  of  teaching  the  natives 
may  not  be  so  encouraging,  and  may  require  in 
all  more  faith  and  patience ;  but  it  appears  to 
have  been  the  process  of  things  in  the  progress 
of  the  Reformation ;  .  .  .  and  the  grand  result 
will  amply  recompense  us,  and  you,  for  all  our 
toils." 

Carey's  initiative  was  followed  in  the  general 
work  of  the  Baptist  missions  in  India,  although 
they  have  not  held  the  lead  that  he  gave  them. 

American  Missions.— The  missionaries  of 
the  American  Board  at  Bombay  (181 3),  Cey- 
lon (1816),  and  Madura  (1834)  carried  out  the 
same  principles  that  Carey  had  laid  down  at  Cal- 
cutta. Hall  and  Newell  at  Bombay,  as  soon 
as  they  could  master  the  language,  went  to  the 
markets,  temples,  fairs,  wherever  tliey  could  find 
the  people,  but  soon  became  convinced  that  they 
must  rely,  to  a  great  degree,  upon  publications, 


INDIA  153 

for  which  they  secured  a  press,  and  upon  schools, 
even  though  for  some  time  they  were  obh'ged  to 
rely  chiefly  upon  native  and  heathen  teachers  for 
a  large  part  of  the  instruction.  Every  effort, 
however,  was  made  to  exercise  as  much  Christian 
influence  as  possible  on  the  children,  and  in  many 
cases  they  were  brought  into  Christian  homes 
and  given  Christian  names.  It  was  significant 
that  the  first  convert  at  Bombay  was  a  Moslem, 
and  that  his  change  of  faith  was  occasioned  by  a 
tract.  As  the  missionaries  sought  to  enter  the 
interior  and  meet  the  turbulent  Marathis,  their 
only  means,  at  first,  were  the  schools  by  which 
they  aroused  the  interest  and  then  won  the  con- 
fidence of  the  people.  Similar  experiences  at- 
tended the  estabhshment  of  the  Ceylon  mission, 
afterward  extended  to  the  south  coast  of  India 
among  the  same  Tamil  people.  Free  day-schools 
and  boarding-schools  were  estabhshed  and 
crowded,  and  in  a  few  years  plans  were  laid  for 
a  college  at  Jaffna,  followed  later  by  Williams 
College,  Pasumalai,  Madura.  The  formation  of 
churches  had  not,  however,  been  rapid,  and  there 
was  considerable  feeling  among  the  supporters  of 
the  missions  that  the  evangelistic  character  of  the 
work  was  being  subordinated  to  the  educational. 
This  is  referred  to  in  the  succeeding  section  of 
this  book,  in  the  chapter  on  education,  and  a 
quotation  made  from  a  letter  by  the  missionaries 
in  explanation  of  their  course.  The  practice  thus 
inaugurated  has  been  followed  by  other  American 
societies,  and  the  Presbyterian  College  at  Lahore, 
the  Methodist  colleges,  one  for  men  and  one  for 
women,  at  Lucknow,  the  Lutheran  College  at 
Guntur,  and  the  Baptist  College  at  Ongole,  not 
less  than  the  large  number  of  schools,  indicate 
the  value  put  upon  this  form  of  mission  work. 


154  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

The  work  of  the  Methodists  among  the  Sweepers 
and  of  the  Baptists  and  others  among  the  Telu- 
gus  is  referred  to  below. 

English  and  Scotch  Missions.— These 
also  have  followed  the  same  general  policy  inau- 
gurated by  Carey.  The  Church  Missionary  So- 
ciety, as  it  has  the  widest  work,  so  it  has  the 
largest  number  of  institutions  in  every  section ; 
but  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gos- 
pel has  a  number,  and  the  London  Missionary 
Society,  while  devoting  itself  somewhat  more  to 
strictly  evangelistic  work,  is  by  no  means  neglect- 
ing the  educational.  To  the  Scotch,  however, 
belongs  the  lead  in  educational  missions,  and  the 
three  colleges  at  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay 
are  the  result  of  a  course  of  action  carefully  con- 
sidered, definitely  decided  upon,  and  consistently 
followed.  There  have  been  numerous  attacks 
upon  them,  claiming  that  they  emphasize  educa- 
tion at  the  expense  of  Christianity,  and  thus  are 
not  properly  mission  colleges.  In  view  of  these 
charges  a  special  deputation  was  sent  to  investi- 
gate in  1888,  and  the  result  was  a  hearty  indorse- 
ment of  their  action,  recognizing  that  the  special 
sphere  of  the  Scotch  missions  appears  to  be 
among  the  educated  classes  and  in  training 
evangelists  and  teachers.  It  should  be  said  that 
a  considerable  amount  of  the  criticism  has  been 
occasioned  by  the  relation  held  by  the  mission 
colleges  to  the  imperial  universities.  The  uni- 
versities, under  certain  general  rules,  make  a 
money  allowance  to  colleges  that  come  up  to  a 
certain  standard.  It  is  claimed  that  in  the  effort 
to  hold  that  standard,  which  is  very  high,  both 
for  the  sake  of  the  pecuniary  help  and  the  pres- 
tige, full  attention  to  Christian  instruction  and 
influence  becomes  impracticable,  and  some  have 


INDIA  155 

urged  that  the  temptation  be  removed  by  dedin- 
ing  the  government  grants. 

Direct  Evangelism.  — It  must  not  be  sup- 
posed that  while  the  educational  attack  upon  the 
systems  of  India  has  been  pressed,  and  has  fur- 
nished the  general  basis  of  missionary  policy,  direct 
evangehsm  has  been  neglected.  On  the  contrary, 
it  has  been  pushed  in  every  conceivable  way. 
The  system  of  market-days  and  of  melahs,  fairs 
or  assemblies  of  pilgrims  or  merchants,  has  given 
opportunities  for  preaching  which  have  been  im- 
proved whenever  possible.  The  inflammable 
character  of  Hindu  crowds,  however,  has  made 
it  necessary  to  exercise  great  care,  and  pubhc 
controversy  has,  as  a  rule,  been  avoided.  There 
have  also  been  certain  general  movements  which 
deserve  notice,  especially  those  among  the  Telu- 
gus  and  the  Sweepers.  The  American  Baptist 
mission  among  the  Telugus  in  East  India,  com- 
menced in  1836,  for  thirty  years  met  with  almost 
no  success.  Repeated  proposals  for  abandoning 
it  were  made,  but  the  missionaries  refused  to 
leave  the  "  Lone  Star  Mission,"  as  it  was  called, 
and  at  last  they  met  their  reward  in  one  of  the 
most  phenomenal  successes  in  the  history  of  mis- 
sions. Thousands  applied  for  baptism,  and  al- 
though the  greatest  care  was  taken  and  the 
applicants  were  kept  on  probation  for  a  long 
time,  over  eight  thousand  were  baptized  within 
six  weeks,  including  members  of  the  higher  as 
well  as  lower  castes.  Even  more  marked  has 
been  the  work  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  among  the  Sweepers,  one  of  the  lowest 
castes,  who  have  applied  in  thousands  for  admis- 
sion to  church-membership.  Other  denomina- 
tions have  had  similar,  though  perhaps  not  equal, 
experience.     The  Gossner  mission  to  the  Kols, 


I» 


156  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

one  of  the  most  degraded  tribes  in  central  India, 
has  been  very  successful,  and  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society  has  raised  up  a  large  and  prac- 
tically self-directing  as  well  as  self-supporting 
Christian  community  in  South  India.  Nor  have 
the  lower  castes  alone  been  reached.  Brahmins 
in  considerable  numbers  have  been  converted, 
and  in  North  India  and  the  Punjab  work  among 
the  Moslems  has  met  with  a  good  degree  of  suc- 
cess. 

Zenana  Work.— In  no  mission  field  has  the 
work  for  women  distinctively  been  carried  on  to 
the  same  degree  as  in  India.  Not  merely  their 
seclusion  in  the  zenana,  but  the  terrible  suffering 
occasioned  by  the  customs  of  child-marriage,  the 
suttee,  and  the  position  of  widows,  made  their 
condition  almost  more  pitiable  than  that  of 
women  in  Africa  or  China.  It  was  for  them  that 
the  first  women's  societies  were  organized,  and 
work  for  them  has  been  from  the  beginning  an 
integral  part  of  missionary  effort.  Schools  were 
established  for  girls  as  well  as  boys,  and  in  some 
cases,  with  the  advance  in  pubhc  opinion,  co-edu- 
cation has  become  possible.  As  it  was  felt  that 
success  in  this  particular  depended  to  a  great 
degree  upon  changes  in  the  customs  of  the  coun- 
try, missionaries  have  exerted  themselves  to  the 
utmost  to  secure  such  laws  as  would  remove  the 
legality  of  the  oppressive  customs,  and  thus  assist 
the  formation  of  public  opinion.  First  to  be 
accomplished  was  the  abolishing  of  the  suttee, 
and  the  importance  attached  to  it  by  Carey  is 
seen  in  the  fact  of  his  almost  nervous  haste  in 
making  the  translation  into  Bengali  desired  by 
the  governor-general.  Then  followed  other  re- 
forms. The  efforts  of  tlie  Brahmo-  and  Arya- 
Somajes  joined  those  of  the  missionaries  in  weak- 


INDIA 


157 


ening  the  bonds  of  caste,  and  the  admission  of 
women  to  positions  of  public  influence  has  had 
its  share.  Little  by  little  their  success  has  in- 
creased, and  general  education,  accompanied  by 
religious  zenana  instruction  and  influence,  has 
told  so  that  the  situation  to-day  is  vastly  im- 
proved. 

Other  Methods. — Parallel  with  schools  and 
preaching  has  gone  Bible  and  tract  work.  The 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  naturally 
taken  the  lead,  but  a  large  number  of  local  so- 
cieties have  been  formed,  in  most  cases  auxihary 
to  that,  for  the  purpose  of  caring  for  the  dis- 
tribution in  special  fields.  The  initiative  of 
Carey  in  the  matter  of  Bible  translation  has  been 
well  kept  up,  until  there  is  no  country  better  sup- 
plied with  versions  of  the  Bible  in  the  various 
vernaculars.  Tract  work  has  also  been  pushed, 
and  special  efforts  made,  by  the  preparation  of  a 
pure  literature,  to  meet  the  tide  of  false  ideas  and 
enervating  publications,  with  which,  as  popular 
education  has  spread,  and  a  free  press  has  been 
allowed,  the  native  leaders  have  sought  to  turn 
aside  the  influence  of  Christianity.  There  is  also 
a  very  large  number  of  periodicals,  weekly  and 
monthly,  under  the  auspices  of  the  missions  when 
not  directly  edited  by  missionaries.  Medical 
missionaries  have  done  an  excellent  work,  though 
there  has  not  been  the  necessity  for  them  that 
exists  in  China  and  Africa.  They  have,  how- 
ever, had  a  large  share  in  the  opening  of  new 
fields,  and  especially  in  work  among  the  women. 
The  female  physician  has  unlocked  many  a  door 
closed  to  all  others.  One  line  of  medical  work 
deserv^es  special  mention,  that  for  lepers.  These 
unfortunates  attracted  the  sympathetic  attention 
of  the  missionaries  at  an  early  date,  and  several 


158  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

asylums  were  established  by  different  societies. 
In  1874  a  Special  Mission  to  Lepers  in  India 
was  organized  in  England  by  Mr.  Wellesley  C. 
Bailey,  which  has  not  sent  missionaries  of  its 
own,  but  has  assisted  greatly  the  asylums  and 
hospitals  already  in  existence.  Of  later  develop- 
ments none  is  more  significant  or  hopeful  than 
the  work  among  the  students  of  the  various  uni- 
versities, organized  under  the  auspices  of  the  In- 
ternational Committee  of  Young  Men's  Christian 
Associations.  For  some  time  there  has  been  a 
special  secretary  at  Madras,  and  the  recent  visit 
of  Mr.  J.  R.  Mott  has  resulted  in  a  marked  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  College  Associations  and 
in  the  active  work  of  the  students.  Similarly  the 
Christian  Endeavor  movement  has  grown  until  it 
is  already  a  power  in  the  land.  Mention  should 
also  be  made  of  the  Haskell  Lecture  Course,  a 
series  of  lectures  addressed  to  the  educated 
classes  of  India,  to  be  delivered  by  prominent 
foreigners.  The  inaugural  course  by  Dr.  J.  H. 
Barrows  has  already  accomplished  much  good. 

The  Native  Church.  — All  these  efforts  have 
been  directed  to  the  building  up  of  a  Native 
Church,  which,  self-supporting  and  self-directing, 
should  do  for  India  what  no  company  of  mis- 
sionaries, however  able  or  devoted,  could  do. 
There  have  been,  however,  pecuhar  difficulties  in 
the  way.  First  has  been  the  caste  system,  which 
even  conversion  has  found  it  very  difficult  to 
overcome.  The  Roman  Catholic  successors  to 
Xavier  yielded  and  sacrificed  the  growth  of  their 
work.  The  Danish  missionaries  wavered  and 
compromised,  and  to  this  was  undoubtedly 
chiefly  due  the  weakness  of  their  Tamil  missions. 
From  Carey  down  the  modern  missionaries  have 
absolutely  refused  to  yield  to  it  in  the  slightest 


INDIA  159 

degree.  At  the  sacrament  table,  all,  high  caste 
or  low  caste,  Moslem  or  outcaste,  were,  and  are, 
one.  This  has  made  growth  slow  but  sure,  and 
the  foundations  have  been  well  laid.  Another 
difficulty  arose  from  the  contrast  between  a  free 
Christianity  and  a  mercenary  paganism.  Hindu 
priests  gave  their  favors  for  a  price.  Salvation 
in  Christ  was  without  price.  Persecution  and 
ostracism  also  combined  to  strengthen  the  natural 
Oriental  aversion  to  paying  for  anything  that 
could  be  secured  without  pay,  and  self-support 
was  a  matter  of  slow  growth.  The  presence  of 
a  great  variety  of  missionary  societies,  each  with 
its  own  ideas  and  methods,  not  seldom,  antago- 
nistic to  each  other,  helped  to  create  confusion 
and  engender  rivalries  and  jealousies.  In  the 
great  demand  for  competent  native  teachers  and 
preachers  some  yielded  to  the  temptation  to  offer 
higher  salaries  than  were  given  by  associate  mis- 
sions, and  pecuHar  ecclesiastical  and  theological 
views  led  to  an  invasion  of  the  territories  occu- 
pied by  those  who  were  deemed  to  have  a 
weaker  gospel  or  a  less  legitimate  church  organi- 
zation. Mutual  consultation  among  the  mis- 
sions, resulting  in  a  better  understanding  both  of 
each  other  and  of  the  situation,  has  modified  these 
difficulties,  however,  and  the  awakening  of  a 
national  feeling  has  stirred  many  of  the  churches 
and  pastors  to  a  realizing  sense  of  the  absolute 
necessity  of  self-support  as  an  element  in  church 
power.  Partly  owing  to  the  existence  of  the 
caste  system,  there  has  been  less  danger  in  India 
than  in  some  other  countries  of  a  rush  into  the 
churches  of  men  influenced  by  hope  of  pecuniary 
gain.  Yet  in  some  of  the  great  revivals,  as 
among  the  Telugus  and  Sweepers,  it  has  been 
felt  that  great  care  should  be  exercised,  and  in 


l6o  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

many  cases  baptism  has  been  refused  until  there 
could  be  secured  time  and  opportunity  for  in- 
struction in  Christian  faith.  The  scheme  of  a 
few  enthusiasts  for  a  National  Church  of  India 
has  not  met  with  general  approval  anywhere,  and 
will  scarcely  be  accomplished. 

Hindu  Reform  Movements.— That  the 
methods  of  missionary  work  that  have  been 
adopted  for  the  past  century  have  proved  effec- 
tive is  evident  from  many  things :  the  change 
in  general  sentiment  on  a  number  of  topics,  social, 
religious,  and  civil;  the  weakened  power  of  the 
priesthood ;  the  growing  independence  of  indi- 
vidual judgment  and  action;  but  perhaps  most 
of  all  from  the  efforts  put  forth  within  Hinduism 
itself  either  for  reform  or  for  attack  on  Christi- 
anity. The  first  of  these,  the  famous  Brahmo- 
Somaj,  was  probably  less  the  result  of  Christian 
influence  than  of  a  certain  tendency  repeatedly 
manifest  in  Hindus,  and  which  occasioned  Bud- 
dhism, and  at  the  time  of  the  Moslem  invasion 
gave  rise  to  Sikhism.  Rammohun  Roy  sought 
to  restore  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  original 
Hinduism,  freed  from  the  excrescences  of  idola- 
try and  caste.  His  successors,  Keshub  Chunder 
Sen  and  Mozoomdar,  felt  the  power  of  Christi- 
anity, and  by  some  were  classed  as  Christians, 
although  of  the  Unitarian  type.  Then  came  the 
Arya-Somaj,  founded  by  Dayananda  Sarasvati, 
in  some  respects  an  advance  on  the  Brahmo- 
Somaj,  at  least  in  its  influence.  More  lately  has 
come  the  Vedanta,  with  Swami  Vivekananda  as 
its  prophet,  of  a  far  lower  type,  seeking  to  build 
up  Hinduism  on  the  supposed  failure  of  Christi- 
anity. The  Somajes  were  positive  in  their  aim, 
seeking  to  strengthen  by  removing  weaknesses, 
and  they  have  proved  strong  allies  to  a  spiritual 


INDIA  l6l 

Christianity,  even  though  they  fell  short  of  the 
truest  conception.  The  Vedanta  is  simply  an 
effort  to  resist  a  tide  which  is  recognized  as  en- 
dangering the  very  continuance  of  one  of  the 
most  venerable  systems  of  human  philosophy  and 
religious  life.  The  work  of  preachers  and  teach- 
ers, translators,  publishers,  writers,  has  told  and  is 
telling  with  increasing  effect  each  year. 


SOUTHEASTERN    ASIA 

Missions  in  Burma  and  Siam  have  had  this 
advantage,  that  they  have  been  almost  entirely 
prosecuted  in  each  country  by  a  single  society, 
and  thus  have  had  a  unity  which  is  not  often 
possible,  and  a  freedom  of  action  which  gave  the 
best  opportunity  for  development.  They  have 
also  been  in  some  respects  fortunate  in  their 
field,  which  has  not  presented  certain  of  the  dis- 
advantages met  with  in  the  adjoining  countries, 
India  and  China.  Buddhism  is  not  more  friendly 
to  Christianity  than  is  Hinduism,  but  the  absence 
of  the  caste  system  weakens  its  autocratic  power 
over  those  races  whose  acceptance  of  it  is  rather 
formal  than  real,  and  leaves  the  missionaries  less 
hampered  in  their  efforts  to  reach  the  people.  It 
is  also  less  virulent  in  its  opposition,  and  while 
Buddhist  priests  are  bitter  in  their  hostility  to  a 
system  that  threatens  their  supremacy,  Buddhist 
rulers  have  frequently  shown  more  consideration. 
The  terrible  cruelties  of  Thibaw  and  some  of  his 
predecessors  were  political  rather  than  religious. 
Another  advantage  has  been  the  accessibility  of 
races  like  the  Karens  of  Burma  and  the  Laos  of 
Siam,  offering  a  peculiarly  attractive  field  for  the 
missionary,  and  seemingly  very  open  to  gospel 
162 


SOUTHEASTERN    ASIA  163 

influences.  The  annexation  of  Burma  to  India 
and  the  beneficent  rule  of  the  King  of  Siam  have 
also  been  very  positive  factors  in  the  development 
of  some  of  the  most  successful  mission  enterprises 
of  the  Church.  A  very  different  field,  however, 
is  that  offered  in  Malaysia  and  the  East  Indies. 
There  Islam  appears  in  perhaps  its  most  intoler- 
ant form,  together  with  native  paganism  of  a 
peculiarly  revolting  type.  The  treacherous 
Malays  and  the  head-hunting  Dyaks  of  Borneo 
furnish  the  very  reverse  of  the  picture  presented 
in  Burma  and  Siam. 

Missions  in  Burma. — These  had  their  ori- 
gin in  the  work  of  Adoniram  Judson,  and  are 
carried  on  chiefly  by  the  American  Baptists.  The 
Welsh  Presbyterians  have  a  mission  in  Assam, 
and  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gos- 
pel, the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  some 
other  societies  have  stations  at  Rangun  and  its 
vicinity ;  but  the  great  work,  whether  among  the 
Burmese,  Karens,  or  hill  tribes,  not  merely  of 
Burma  proper,  but  also  of  Arakan  and  Assam,  is 
under  the  care  of  the  Baptists.  Three  English 
Baptists  and  two  representatives  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society  preceded  Judson,  but  their 
work  was  not  permanent,  and  his  arrival  at  Ran- 
gun (181 3)  was  really  the  commencement  of  mis- 
sion work  in  that  country.  For  six  years  he  de- 
voted himself  to  laying  foundations,  following  the 
general  principles  laid  down  by  Carey,  and  fitting 
himself  to  meet  the  Burmese  with  the  translated 
Bible  and  a  clear  understanding  of  their  own  be- 
liefs and  customs.  During  this  time  he  was  unmo- 
lested, although  he  kept  very  quiet,  baptizing  his 
first  convert  in  1 8 1 9.  The  same  year,  by  the  death 
of  the  emperor,  and  the  accession  of  a  man  of 
bitter  cruelty  and  tyrannous  in  the  extreme,  the 


164  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

situation  changed.  Repeated  attacks  on  Bengal 
forced  the  war  of  1824-26,  resulting  in  the  an- 
nexation of  Arakan,  and  carrying  with  it  the  im- 
prisonment of  Judson  at  Ava  and  Oung-pen-la, 
and  the  breaking  up  of  the  station  at  Rangun. 
In  1827  George  Dana  Boardman  commenced  at 
Tavoy  the  work  among  the  Karens,  and  from 
that  time  the  advance  was  rapid.  In  1835  the 
mission  in  Arakan  was  commenced,  but  the  very 
unhealthful  climate  prevented  its  prosecution, 
except  for  the  few  years  during  which  Sandoway 
w^as  a  refuge  for  the  persecuted  Karens  of  Bas- 
sein.  Of  late,  under  British  improvements,  it  has 
become  more  healthful,  and  has  been  reoccupied. 
Then  came  the  mission  in  Assam  (1836)  among 
the  Hindu  Assamese  and  Kols  (imported  from 
India  for  work  in  the  tea-gardens)  and  the 
demon-  or  nature-worshiping  Garos  and  other  hill 
tribes.  The  Welsh  Presbyterians  (Calvinistic 
Methodists)  in  1845  commenced  a  work  in  west- 
ern Assam,  the  Baptists  occupying  the  eastern 
section.  A  second  war  with  England,  resulting 
in  the  cession  of  Pegu,  including  Rangun,  gave 
another  impulse  to  the  work,  which  also  extended 
north,  though,  under  a  succession  of  despotic 
emperors,  with  less  success,  until  the  final  over- 
throw of  Thibaw  in  1885  brought  the  whole 
country  under  British  rule,  and  since  then  pro- 
gress has  been  hmited  only  by  the  means  of  the 
society. 

Nature  of  the  Work.— The  character  of  the 
people  has  necessitated  a  double  form  of  work. 
In  the  efforts  to  reach  the  Burmese  and  the  Bud- 
dhist Shans  and  others,  the  same  general  methods 
have  been  adopted  as  in  India  for  the  Hindus, 
and  with  good  success.  Schools  have  been  es- 
tablished, and  at  Rangun  the  Baptists  and  the 


SOUTHEASTERN   ASIA  1 65 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  have 
each  a  flourishing  college.  Churches  also,  with 
good  membership,  have  been  organized,  and  the 
results  have  shown  that  Buddhism  can  be  over- 
come by  Christianity.  The  distinguishing  feature 
of  mission  work  in  Burma  is  the  phenomenal 
success  of  the  labors  among  the  Karens,  or  peas- 
ant class.  They  are  held  to  be  of  Mongolian 
origin,  who  have  come  over  in  three  great  mi- 
grations, and  now  as  three  different  tribes  or 
clans,  differing  in  language  and  customs,  occupy 
the  hill-country  of  northern  and  the  plains  of 
southern  Burma.  They  have  never  given  up 
their  nature-  or  demon-worship,  but  have  many 
traditions  of  spiritual  religion  and  conceptions  of 
an  Eternal  Being  and  a  Redeemer.  From  the 
very  first  they  welcomed  the  teaching  of  the  mis- 
sionaries, and,  notwithstanding  the  bitter  perse- 
cution of  the  Burmese,  flocked  in  crowds  to  the 
missionaries  for  baptism.  In  1840,  when  the 
hostility  was  so  strong  that  the  mission  station  at 
Bassein  was  broken  up,  the  missionaries  estab- 
lished themselves  at  Sandoway  in  Arakan,  and 
sought  from  there  to  guide  and  help  the  perse- 
cuted communities.  The  Karens  followed  them, 
and  although  the  Burmese  placed  guards  on  the 
mountains,  to  arrest  any  who  sought  to  pass, 
several  thousands  did  get  through  and  established 
Christian  Karen  churches  in  Arakan.  The 
growth,  too,  has  been  steady,  and  the  Karen  with 
the  Telugu  churches  have  given  the  Baptist  mis- 
sions a  preeminence  in  mission  statistics  for 
which  they  may  well  be  grateful.  Not  less  im- 
portant than  the  size  of  the  communities  is  their 
character.  In  no  field  in  the  world  is  there  a 
better  record  in  regard  to  the  self-support  of  the 
native  churches.     From  the  very  beginning  this 


1 66  DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE    FIELD 

subject  has  been  pressed,  and,  assisted  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  by  the  conditions  in  which  the 
size  of  the  churches  is  an  important  element,  the 
foundations  of  a  permanent,  self-propagating 
Christian  community  have  been  well  laid.  Less 
noticeable,  but  not  less  valuable  and  interesting, 
has  been  the  development  of  the  work  among 
the  hill  tribes  of  Assam,  the  Khamtis,  Garos, 
Chins,  and  Kachins,  and  among  the  Kols. 
With  the  spread  of  English  rule  and  the  exten- 
sion of  means  of  conveyance  these  tribes  are 
being  brought  more  than  ever  within  reach,  and 
already  the  plans  for  railway  connection  of  Upper 
India  with  western  China  are  being  perfected. 
As  yet  they  have  not  reduced  the  savagery,  and 
mission  work  is  still  pioneer  work ;  but,  judging 
from  the  past,  these  wild  races  will  before  long 
come  under  gospel  influence. 

Missions  in  Siam. — Attention  was  first 
drawn  to  Siam  as  a  possible  door  to  China. 
Bangkok  was  prominent  in  Chinese  trade,  and 
Gutzlalf,  of  the  Netherlands  Missionary  Society, 
stationed  at  Singapore,  visited  it  with  a  represen- 
tative of  the  London  Society  in  1828  with  that 
in  view.  As  a  result  they  sent  an  earnest  appeal 
to  America  to  occupy  the  country.  In  response 
the  Rev.  David  Abeel,  of  the  American  Board's 
mission  at  Canton,  went  to  Bangkok  and  joined 
them  in  preparatory  work.  All  these  were, 
however,  obhged  to  leave  by  1832.  The  next 
year  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union 
opened  work  chiefly  for  the  Chinese,  though 
some  attention  was  paid  to  the  Siamese.  Neither, 
however,  has  been  pushed  very  much.  The 
American  Board  sent  two  more  missionaries  in 
1834,  who  were  joined  the  next  year  by  Dr. 
Daniel  B.  Bradley,  in  a  sense  the  father  of  mis- 


SOUTHEASTERN    ASIA  167 

sions  to  Siam,  though  his  direct  connection  with 
the  mission  ceased  after  a  few  years.  Associated 
with  him  was  the  Rev.  Jesse  Caswell,  who  ac- 
complished a  great  deal  for  missions  as  tutor  to 
the  young  King  of  Siam.  As  work  in  China  de- 
veloped, the  missionaries  engaged  in  that  depart- 
ment left,  and  the  American  Board's  Siamese 
mission  was  closed  in  1849.  J^^^  before  that, 
after  one  or  two  experiments,  the  Presbyterian 
Board  commenced  permanent  work,  which  has 
been  considerably  enlarged  so  as  to  cover  not 
only  the  southern  part  of  the  kingdom,  but  also 
the  northern,  where  the  Laos  form  the  greater 
part  of  the  population. 

Relation  to  the  Government.— One  of  the 
distinctive  features  of  mission  work  in  Siam  has 
been  the  very  cordial  relations  between  the  mis- 
sionaries and  the  government.  This  was  partly 
due  to  Dr.  Bradley,  whose  medical  skill  made  a 
great  impression  on  the  people,  and  whose  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  the  language  brought  him  into 
constant  contact  with  the  officials.  Still  more, 
however,  was  accomphshed  by  Mr.  Caswell,  who 
made  the  acquaintance  of  the  heir  to  the  throne 
while  being  trained  as  a  Buddhist  priest,  won  his 
confidence,  became  his  tutor,  and  acquired  an  in- 
fluence over  him  which,  on  his  ascent  of  the  throne 
in  1 85 1,  modified  his  whole  bearing,  not  merely 
toward  the  missionaries,  but  toward  all  foreigners. 
While  his  predecessor,  a  usurper,  had  been  very 
harsh,  he  was  always  courteous,  sought  to  come 
into  friendly  relations  with  foreign  governments, 
and  to  introduce  foreign  civilization.  The  mis- 
sionaries were  welcome  in  the  palace.  Several 
of  the  women  were  invited  to  teach  the  women 
of  the  royal  household,  and  a  Christian  English- 
woman was  employed  as  governess,  among  her 


1 68  DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    FIELD 

pupils  being  the  present  king.  Missionaries  were 
placed  in  charge  of  royal  hospitals,  appointed  to 
official  positions,  and  in  many  ways  were  assured 
of  the  high  esteem  in  which  they  were  held. 

Progress  of  the  Work.— The  effect  of  the 
favor  of  the  government  was  to  give  the  mission- 
aries free  course  in  their  work.  There  was  no 
hindrance,  and  yet  the  work  for  the  Siamese  did 
not  grow  or  show  much  success.  This  was  due 
chiefly  to  the  hold  of  Buddhism  upon  the  people, 
illustrated  by  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  the 
men  spend  at  least  a  few  years  in  the  priesthood, 
and  there  is  scarcely  a  family  which  is  not  per- 
manently represented  in  it.  It  is  probable  also 
that  the  very  enervating  climate  has  had  a  con- 
siderable influence.  The  great  mission  work  in 
Siam,  however,  is  in  the  Lao  country,  to  the  north. 
The  Laos  are  akin  to  the  Siamese,  both  belonging 
to  the  great  Shan  family,  but  are  superior  to  the 
southern  race,  both  in  character  and  in  physical 
nature.  They  are  Buddhists,  at  least  in  name, 
but  are  much  under  the  influence  of  the  demon- 
worship  which  is  so  prevalent  and  so  strong 
through  southeastern  Asia.  Attention  was  first 
drawn  to  them  by  the  presence,  near  one  of  the 
stations  of  the  Siam  mission,  of  a  colony  of  Laos 
who  had  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
the  King  of  Siam  in  order  to  escape  the  tyranny 
of  their  own  tributary  chief.  In  1863  an  explor- 
ing tour  was  made  to  Chieng  Mai,  the  capital  of 
the  most  powerful  Lao  province,  and  four  years 
later  a  station  was  opened  there.  Success  fol- 
lowed the  efforts  of  the  missionaries  quite  speedily, 
and  it  was  evident  that  they  were  acquiring  a 
strong  hold  on  the  people.  This  aroused  the 
anger  of  the  king  of  the  province,  and  he  sought 
to  secure  the  recall  of  the  missionaries  to  Bang- 


SOUTHEASTERN    ASIA  169 

kok.  Failing  in  this,  he  commenced  torturing 
the  converts,  but,  before  he  could  carry  it  very- 
far,  was  called  to  Bangkok  on  state  business  and 
died  there.  A  proclamation  of  religious  liberty 
for  the  Lao  people  by  the  King  of  Siam  put  an 
end  to  the  trouble,  and  since  then  the  work  has 
advanced  very  rapidly,  giving  promise  of  great 
success.  The  late  war  between  Siam  and  France, 
resulting  in  the  cession  of  the  east  bank  of  the 
Mekong  River,  has  threatened  to  injure  mission 
work  by  cutting  off  from  the  missionaries  access 
to  the  Lao  tribes  in  French  territory.  Native 
evangelists,  however,  are  being  rapidly  raised  up 
who  may  be  able  to  do  for  the  French  colonies 
of  Tongking,  Anam,  and  Cambodia  what  is  for- 
bidden to  Protestant  missionaries.  They  will  also 
be  valuable  helpers  in  reaching  the  Shan  races  to 
the  north,  on  the  borders  of  China.  The  people 
manifest  great  readiness  in  all  departments  of 
Christian  work,  cordially  assume  its  expense,  and 
are  eager  as  individuals  to  assist  in  the  spread  of 
the  knowledge  of  Christian  truth. 

Malaysia. — The  Malay  Peninsula,  including 
the  English  Straits  Settlements,  Singapore,  Ma- 
lacca, Penang,  etc.,  the  surrounding  British  pro- 
tected provinces,  and  the  Siamese  provinces,  has 
been  occupied  as  mission  ground  in  only  a  few 
places.  At  Singapore  the  chief  work  since  it  was 
English  property  has  been  by  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  for  the  English  resi- 
dents, though  of  late  years  that  has  been  extended 
to  include  the  natives,  chiefly  the  Chinese  and  the 
Tamils  who  have  come  from  India.  The  English 
Presbyterian  Church  established  a  work  among 
the  Chinese  which  has  been  successful,  and  in 
1889  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  founded 
its  Malaysian  mission,  with  stations  at  Singapore 


lyo  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

and  Penang,  especially  for  the  Chinese  and  Ta- 
mils, although  efforts  to  reach  the  Moslem  Malays 
have  not  been  without  success.  The  mission  has 
planned  extension  into  the  East  Indies,  but  has 
not  as  yet  accomplished  this.  Singapore  and 
Malacca  were  frequently  resorted  to  in  the  early 
days  of  Chinese  missions,  because  of  the  large 
number  of  Chinese  who  gathered  there,  but  with 
the  opening  of  the  Chinese  ports  that  was  less 
necessary,  and  China  itself  offered  a  more  hope- 
ful field. 

Dutch  East  Indies.— These,  including  the 
islands  of  Sumatra,  Java,  Celebes,  and  Borneo, 
and  the  adjoining  smaller  groups,  have  been  the 
special  field  of  the  Dutch  societies,  although  the 
Rhenish  Society  and  the  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  have  been  active  and  suc- 
cessful in  Borneo  and  Sumatra.  The  first  to 
enter  the  field  was  the  Netherlands  Missionary 
Society,  which  sent  three  missionaries,  who  estab- 
hshed  themselves  at  Amboyna,  one  of  the  Mo- 
luccas, at  Samarang,  and  at  Batavia.  These  were 
followed  by  five  more  two  years  later,  who  worked 
among  the  different  islands  as  they  had  oppor- 
tunity, and  evidently  acquired  considerable  influ- 
ence, being  employed  by  the  government  at  times 
to  settle  disputes  between  the  tribes.  Since  then 
the  society  has  occupied  Celebes.  The  next  to 
enter  the  field  was  the  Ermelo  Society,  which 
owed  its  origin  to  an  enthusiastic  pastor.  At  first 
it  joined  forces  with  the  Rhenish  Society  in  Su- 
matra, but  afterward  established  its  own  stations 
in  Java.  The  Dutch  Missionary  Society  located 
itself  (1863)  on  the  west  coast  of  Java  among 
the  Moslem  Sundanese,  The  Mennonite  Society 
has  stations  in  Sumatra  and  Java.  The  Java 
Committee  assists  a  Javanese  home  mission  so- 


SOUTHEASTERN    ASIA  171 

ciety  founded  in  Batavia,  while  the  Christian 
Reformed  and  the  Dutch  Reformed  also  carry 
on  work  in  the  same  island.  In  general  the  work 
of  these  societies  has  been  chiefly  among  the  Ma- 
lays, and  seems  to  have  made  comparatively  little 
impression  upon  the  great  mass  of  the  population, 
although  Amboyna  is  almost  entirely  Christian. 
Education  has  been  fostered,  but  not  carried  to 
any  high  degree.  There  have  been  a  number  of 
schools  estabhshed,  but  no  colleges  or  large  in- 
stitutions of  any  kind.  There  have  been  trans- 
lations of  the  Scriptures,  but  for  these  the  people 
have  been  indebted  largely  to  the  Rhenish  mis- 
sionaries and  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety. Of  all  the  departments  the  most  interesting 
and,  on  the  whole,  the  most  successful  work  has 
appeared  to  be  that  carried  on  by  the  Rhenish 
Society  among  the  Battas  of  Sumatra,  although 
the  efforts  of  the  same  society  and  of  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  among  the 
Dyaks,  or  head-hunters,  of  Borneo  have  attracted 
more  of  public  attention.  Only  in  Borneo  has 
mission  work  been  attended  by  much  danger,  the 
other  islands  being  under  foreign  domination 
very  thoroughly.  With  the  extension  of  British 
rule  over  Sarawak  as  well  as  North  Borneo  this 
has  considerably  diminished,  and  the  missionaries 
of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
have  found  their  work  increasingly  influential  and 
successful. 

Closely  connected  with  Borneo  is  New  Guinea, 
forming  a  sort  of  connecting-link  between  the 
East  Indies  and  Australasia  and  the  South  Seas. 
The  work  in  this  island  was  started  in  1874  by 
the  London  Missionary  Society  from  its  mission 
in  the  Loyalty  Islands,  and  it  has  been  developed 
with  considerable   success.      Industrial  schools 


172  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

hav^e  been  established ;  and  Papuan  negroes,  of 
a  very  different  type  from  the  Malays  or  Dyaks, 
have  shown  the  effect  of  both  Christianity  and 
civilization.  As  yet,  however,  this  is  true  chiefly 
of  the  coast.  The  interior  has  been  scarcely 
entered.  In  the  Dutch  section  of  the  island  the 
Utrecht  Society  has  established  several  stations, 
and  in  the  German  is  some  work  of  the  Rhenish 
Society.  The  neighboring  Philippine  Islands 
have  not  been  entered  by  Protestant  missionaries, 
being  under  the  close  rule  of  Spain,  and  domi- 
nated by  Spanish  ecclesiastics. 


VI 

CHINA 

There  have  been  four  different  attempts  by  the 
Christian  Church  to  evangehze  China :  by  the  Nes- 
torians,  the  medieval  Roman  Cathohcs,  the  post- 
Reformation  Roman  Cathohcs,  and  the  modern 
Protestants  and  Roman  Cathohcs.  The  Nesto- 
rian  attempt  covered  chiefly  the  sixth,  seventh, 
and  eighth  centuries,  and  appears  to  have  reached 
its  height  toward  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, the  tablet  at  Singanfu  bearing  the  date  of 
781.  From  that  time  they  diminished  in  strength 
and  gradually  disappeared,  although  there  seem 
to  have  been  some  of  their  converts  at  the  time  of 
the  second  attempt,  by  John  de  Monte  Corvino. 
His  mission  was  the  direct  result  of  the  travels 
of  Marco  Polo,  and  coincided  with  the  close  of 
the  Mongol  rule.  The  advent  of  the  Ming  dy- 
nasty (1341)  put  an  end  to  the  mission.  The 
next  attempt  was  that  of  the  Jesuits,  foUowing 
close  upon  the  work  of  Xavier.  After  some  fail- 
ures, they  established  themselves  in  Canton  in 
1582,  won  considerable  favor,  and  on  the  acces- 
don  of  the  Manchu  dynasty,  in  1644,  advanced 
rapidly.  Their  scientific  attainments  gave  them 
prestige  in  Peking,  and  they  had  converts  from 
all  classes,  churches  were  built,  large  Christian 
173 


174  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

communities  were  established,  and  a  considerable 
success  seemed  assured.  Then  arose  a  discussion 
as  to  the  relation  to  be  held  toward  Confucianism. 
The  Jesuits  let  it  alone,  as  not  interfering  with 
the  profession  of  Christian  faith.  The  Domini- 
cans and  Franciscans,  smarting  perhaps  under 
their  comparative  failure,  claimed  that  it  should 
be  unsparingly  condemned.  Then  arose  also  a 
discussion  as  to  the  proper  term  for  the  Deity. 
The  popes  declared  the  Confucian  rites  idola- 
trous ;  the  emperors  retorted  by  forbidding  any 
but  the  Jesuits  to  teach ;  and  at  last  all  Chris- 
tianity was  forbidden,  the  missionaries  were  ban- 
ished, and  their  converts  sent  into  exile  (1724). 
The  execution  of  the  edict  was  not,  however, 
carried  out  with  any  uniformity,  and  when,  after 
a  century,  missionaries  again  gained  access  to 
the  empire,  numerous  communities  were  found 
true  to  the  Christian  name. 

Protestant  Missions. — Thepioneerof  Prot- 
estant missions  was  Robert  Morrison,  who  was 
sent  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  to  Can- 
ton in  1807.  He  had  had  his  attention  called 
to  China  by  the  discovery  of  a  Chinese  classical 
manuscript  in  the  British  Museum,  and  set  about 
the  study  of  the  language  at  once,  under  a  native 
teacher.  At  that  time  the  empire  was  practically 
closed  to  foreigners,  although  the  Portuguese 
since  1557  had  held  possession  of  Macao,  on  a 
delta  at  the  mouth  of  the  Si-kiang,  or  West  River, 
and  the  harbor  of  Canton.  They  had  been  fol- 
lowed by  the  East  India  Company,  and  some 
American  merchants  had  establishments  at  Can- 
ton. All,  however,  were  on  sufferance,  and  sub- 
ject to  the  most  unjust  and  arbitrary  treatment  at 
the  hands  of  the  mandarins.  Morrison  applied 
to  the  East  India  Company  for  passage  to  Hong- 


CHINA  175 

kong,  but  was  refused,  on  the  same  general 
grounds  as  those  taken  in  regard  to  Carey.  An 
American  firm,  Olyphant  &  Co.,  of  New  York, 
were  more  favorable,  and  Morrison  reached  China 
by  way  of  America.  Dwelling  at  first  in  an 
American  and  afterward  in  a  French  warehouse, 
and  dressing  in  Chinese  garb  to  avoid  notice,  he 
pressed  the  study  of  the  language,  although  his 
teacher  carried  poison  in  his  pocket  to  anticipate 
the  officers  should  he  be  caught  violating  the 
stringent  orders  against  instructing  foreigners. 
The  difficulties,  however,  proved  so  great  that  he 
after  a  time  removed  to  Macao.  In  1809,  on 
his  marriage  to  the  daughter  of  an  English  mer- 
chant, he  received  an  appointment  as  translator 
to  the  East  India  Company,  which  made  him 
independent  in  support,  secured  him  a  residence 
in  Canton,  large  opportunity  to  meet  the  people, 
and  considerable  time  for  the  prosecution  of 
missionary  work,  especially  in  the  preparation  of 
a  translation  of  the  Bible,  a  Chinese  dictionary, 
and  other  books.  He  was  joined  in  18 13  by 
William  Milne,  and  in  181 6  by  Walter  H.  Med- 
hurst,  who  afterward  removed  to  Malacca  and 
Batavia  to  prosecute  work  for  the  Chinese  there, 
not,  however,  until  their  names  had  become  in- 
separably associated  with  Morrison's  in  the  laying 
of  the  foundations  of  missions  in  China. 

The  Missionary  Problem.— The  situation 
confronting  the  early  missionaries  in  China  was 
both  like  and  unlike  that  which  met  Carey  in 
India.  The  ruling  class  in  each  country  was 
characterized  by  great  intellectual  pride.  The 
nature  of  that  pride  in  the  two  cases  was,  how- 
ever, different.  The  Brahman,  Moslem,  Buddhist, 
or  animist  was  consistent  in  his  acceptance  of  a 
creed,  or  at  least  a  system.     The  Chinese  was 


176  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

either  Confucianist,  Buddhist,  or  Taoist,  as  he 
happened  to  choose,  or  even  all  three  at  the  same 
time.  He  was,  however,  predominantly  always 
a  Confucianist,  and  Confucianism  is  scarcely  to 
be  called  a  rehgion.  The  result  is  a  strange  in- 
congruity in  the  Chinese  character,  which  makes 
it  the  despair  of  logical  minds  and  subjects  it  to 
the  most  contradictory  interpretations.  There 
was  a  sense  of  Deity,  but  no  agreement  as  to 
what  it  involved  or  what  its  essential  characteris- 
tics were.  There  was  a  state  religion,  including 
the  cultus  of  ancestors,  of  heaven  and  nature, 
polytheistic,  pantheistic,  and  atheistic  all  at  the 
same  time.  Under  such  circumstances  it  was 
difficult  to  find  common  ground  for  the  missionary 
and  the  Chinese.  The  absence  of  caste,  and  the 
system  of  competitive  examinations  on  which 
the  mandarin  system  depended,  operated  to  bind 
the  people  in  a  unity  very  different  from  the  divi- 
sions, jealousies,  and  fears  of  India.  There  was, 
too,  the  despotic  government  and,  perhaps  most 
of  all,  the  bitter  opposition  to  everything  foreign 
characteristic  of  all  classes.  All  of  these  had 
indeed  advantageous  characteristics,  but  they 
appeared  later.  To  the  pioneers  it  seemed  like 
an  absolutely  blank,  impassable  wall.  It  was 
the  good  fortune  of  their  successors  that  they 
were  men  willing  to  work  for  future  rather  than 
immediate  success,  and  to  be  content  to  prepare 
the  tools  for  others,  lay  the  foundations  on  which, 
under  more  favorable  circumstances,  the  Church 
might  be  built.  They  were  not,  however,  left 
without  results.  In  1814  Morrison  baptized  his 
first  Chinese  convert,  and  subsequent  experiences 
confirmed  him  in  his  optimism  as  to  the  success 
of  missions  in  the  empire. 


CHINA  177 

First  American  Missionaries.— For  over 

twenty  years  Morrison  worked  alone,  except  as 
he  felt  the  fellowship  of  Milne  and  Medhurst  in 
their  kindred  work  in  Malacca  and  Batavia.  In 
1829  he  welcomed  E.  C.  Bridgman  and  David 
Abeel  from  the  American  Board  as  the  first  rep- 
resentatives of  America,  and  from  that  time  the 
Churches  of  America  and  England  did  not  cease 
to  press  on  the  work.  With  the  Americans  came 
a  printing-press,  and  in  1833  S.  Wells  Williams 
joined  the  little  company  as  printer.  Another 
year  brought  Peter  Parker,  the  founder  of  medi- 
cal missions,  followed  closely  by  another  medical 
missionary  of  the  London  Society,  who,  however, 
deemed  it  best  to  remove  to  Macao,  where  he 
estabhshed  a  hospital  for  Chinese  patients.  In 
1833  the  American  Baptists  commenced  their 
work  for  the  Chinese  at  Bangkok,  and  in  1838 
the  Presbyterians  sent  a  missionary  to  Singapore ; 
so  that,  on  the  opening  of  the  treaty  ports  in  1842, 
everything  was  ready  for  a  prompt  occupation  of 
the  field.  Batavia,  Malacca,  Macao,  were  left ; 
the  Anglo-Chinese  college,  one  of  Morrison's 
plans,  was  placed  in  Hongkong,  and  S.  Wells 
Williams  took  his  printing-press  from  Macao, 
where  it  had  been  placed  for  greater  freedom,  to 
the  protection  of  the  English  at  Hongkong,  and 
a  little  later  to  Canton. 

English  and  French  Wars.— The  treaties 
which  opened  China  to  foreigners  and  to  Chris- 
tian missions  were  secured  through  two  wars,  one 
of  which  has  been  frequently  called  the  "  Opium 
War,"  with  the  incorrect  implication  that  it  was 
waged  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  opium  upon 
the  country.  The  Chinese  authorities  at  Canton 
had  been  increasingly  arbitrary  in  their  treatment 


lyS  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

of  foreigners,  especially  the  English,  and  brought 
matters  to  a  dimax  by  threatening  to  kill  the 
entire  foreign  colony  unless  some  opium  in  ships 
outside  of  the  port  was  delivered.  To  save  the 
lives  of  the  people  the  opium  was  surrendered 
and  destroyed,  but  to  all  claims  for  indemnity 
the  government  paid  no  heed.  The  result  was 
a  war,  which  ended  in  the  opening  of  the  ports 
in  1842.  That  was  followed,  two  years  later, 
by  treaties  with  France  and  America.  At  the 
instance  of  the  former,  the  persecuting  edicts, 
which  had  been  in  force  since  the  expulsion  of 
the  Jesuits,  were  withdrawn,  Christian  exiles  were 
recalled,  and  Christian  work  sanctioned.  In  no 
one  of  the  treaties  was  there  any  mention  made 
of  opium,  which  was  legally  prohibited,  nor  was 
there  any  efifort  to  force  it  upon  the  people. 
There  was,  however,  no  recognition  of  its  evil, 
and  the  result  of  the  war  was  practically  to  bind 
it  upon  the  country  by  making  interference  with 
it  difhcult. 

The  next  step  was  the  "Arrow  War"  (1856), 
in  which  Canton  was  taken,  and  the  alHed  Eng- 
lish and  French  fleets,  proceeding  to  Tientsin, 
forced  more  concessions  and  assisted  in  securing 
the  treaty  with  America,  into  which  S.  Wells 
WiHiams,  then  Chinese  Secretary  to  the  Lega- 
tion, had  inserted  the  following  clause : 

"  The  principles  of  the  Christian  rehgion  as 
professed  by  the  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic 
Churches  are  recognized  as  teaching  men  to  do 
good  and  to  do  to  others  as  they  would  have 
others  do  to  them.  Hereafter  those  who  quietly 
teach  and  profess  these  doctrines  shall  not  be 
harassed  or  persecuted  on  account  of  their  faith. 
Any  person,  whether  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  or  a  Chinese  convert,  who,  according  to 


CHINA 


79 


these  tenets,  peaceably  teaches  and  practises  the 
principles  of  Christianity  shall  in  no  wise  be  in- 
terfered with  or  molested." 

The  principle  had  been  recognized  in  the 
French  treaty  in  1844,  but  this  specific  state- 
ment was  worth  much,  and  in  securing  it  Messrs. 
Williams  and  W.  A.  P.  Martin  did  the  cause  of 
missions  in  China  a  service  that  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. This  was  in  1858,  but  it  was  not  until 
i860  that  the  treaties  were  really  made  operative 
and  missions  had  a  fully  recognized  status  in  the 
empire. 

Occupation  of  the  Field.— The  mission- 
aries, however,  had  not  waited.  Immediately 
on  the  opening  of  the  first  ports,  Amoy  was  occu- 
pied by  the  American  Board,  which  later  passed 
its  work  there  over  to  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Board.  The  same  year  (1842)  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  entered  the  field,  followed 
closely  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  of  England,  and 
the  English  Baptists  (1845).  I^  ^^47  ^^'^  more 
joined  the  work  :  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
the  Seventh-day  Baptists,  and  Southern  Baptists, 
from  America ;  the  English  Presbyterians ;  and 
the  Basle  and  Rhenish  societies  from  Germany. 
Then  followed  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South  (1848),  the  Wesleyans  of  England  (1852), 
the  Methodist  New  Connection  (i860),  the 
United  Presbyterians  of  Scotland  (1865),  the 
China  Inland  Mission  (1865),  the  Scotch  Bible 
Society,  American  Southern  Presbyterians,  and 
United  Methodist  Free  Churches  of  England 
(1868),  the  Irish  Presbyterians  (1869),  the  Cana- 
dian Presbyterians  (187 1),  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  (1874),  the  American 
Bible  Society  (1876),  the  Established  Church  of 


l8o  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

Scotland  (1878),  the  Berlin  Society  (1882),  the 
Disciples  of  Christ  (1886),  the  Friends  (1886), 
as  well  as  a  number  of  minor  enterprises.  The 
latest  to  enter  the  field  is  the  Christian  and  Mis- 
sionary AlHance,  which  has  taken  into  its  force 
some  American  Swedes  who  had  already  entered 
the  empire  and  were  pioneering  in  the  interior. 
As  was  inevitable  under  the  circumstances,  the 
missionaries  gathered  chiefly  in  the  treaty  ports. 
They,  however,  improved  every  opportunity  to 
extend  their  observations  into  the  interior;  and 
long,  arduous,  and  dangerous  journeys  were  made 
by  representatives  of  all  the  societies.  The  most 
noted  of  these,  perhaps,  was  W.  C.  Burns,  the 
well-known  Scotch  evangelist,  whose  experiences, 
from  the  time  when  he  made  his  first  tour  from 
Hongkong  in  1849  to  his  death  at  a  wayside  inn 
in  Manchuria  in  1867,  match  for  thrilling  interest 
the  records  of  any  mission  field.  Under  his  in- 
fluence largely  J.  Hudson  Taylor  organized  the 
China  Inland  Mission,  which  has  done  so  much 
to  reach  the  inland  provinces.  The  other  so- 
cieties have,  however,  not  been  slow  to  press 
forward.  One  of  the  first  interior  stations  was 
that  at  Kalgan,  opened  by  the  American  Board, 
while  the  Presbyterians  occupied  Shantung,  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  and  Baptists  pressed 
toward  the  western  provinces,  the  Irish  and 
Scotch  Presbyterians  entered  Manchuria,  and, 
more  recently,  James  Gilmour,  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  has  made  the  name  of  Mon- 
golia familiar  to  readers  of  mission  literature. 

The  Massacres.— The  effect  of  the  wars— 
the  resulting  treaties  and  the  entrance  of  for- 
eigners into  even  the  remoter  sections  of  the 
empire — was  to  arouse  and  increase  the  bitter 
hostiHty  of  the  mandarin  class  against  all   for- 


CHINA  l8l 

eigners.  From  the  beginning  they  had  been  sub- 
ject to  constant  insult  and  even  personal  danger ; 
but  in  1870,  ten  years  after  the  full  enforcement 
of  the  treaties,  there  broke  out  a  perfect  fury  of 
massacre.  In  January  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  missionaries  at  Hankow  were  attacked, 
and  a  number  killed,  while  their  buildings  were 
destroyed.  This  was  followed  in  July  by  the  cele- 
brated massacre  at  Tientsin,  when  the  French 
consulate,  convent,  and  cathedral  were  destroyed, 
and  a  large  number  of  French  and  Russian  resi- 
dents were  killed,  many  of  them  mutilated  in 
the  most  horrible  manner.  The  excitement 
spread,  and  threatening  demonstrations  were 
made  against  foreigners  everywhere  before  quiet 
could  be  restored.  The  government  executed 
sixteen  Chinese  and  exiled  two  mandarins,  but 
the  leaders  went  unpunished,  and  the  general 
impression  left  upon  the  country  was  that,  while 
the  foreigners  would  make  a  strong  protest,  noth- 
ing very  serious  would  happen.  The  result  was 
a  long  series  of  attacks  of  greater  or  less  severity 
upon  the  mission  stations  scattered  throughout 
the  country.  There  was  punishment  of  offenders, 
but  still  no  effective  check.  The  prompt  and  de- 
cisive action  of  the  United  States  in  sending  its 
representatives  far  into  the  interior  to  investigate 
one  of  the  latest  outbreaks  has  had  much  to  do 
with  alleviating  the  situation,  and  the  publication 
of  an  imperial  edict  fully  protecting  Christians 
and  their  work  has  been  followed  by  the  state- 
ment, made  as  these  hues  are  written,  that  the 
United  States  minister,  Mr.  Denby,  has  secured 
the  promise  of  special  instructions  to  the  gov- 
ernors of  provinces  to  see  that  foreigners  suffer 
no  harm.  More  important  still  is  the  assurance 
that  failure  to  observe  the  order  will  entail  pun- 


l82  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

ishment — not  mere  dismissal  from  office  and  a 
nominal  fine. 

Anti-Missionary    or    Anti- Foreign?— 

One  of  the  most  important  questions  connected 
with  the  Chinese  massacres  has  been  whether 
they  were  directed  against  the  missionaries  be- 
cause they  were  missionaries,  or  because  they  were 
foreigners.  Was  the  religious  or  the  political 
element  predominant?  The  fact  that  it  was 
almost  entirely  the  missionaries  who  suffered  has 
led  to  the  belief  that  it  was  their  missionary  work 
which  inspired  the  hatred  of  the  mob.  This  has 
been  supported  by  Mr.  Henry  Norman  in  the 
phrase,  "The  Chinese  themselves  bracket  opium 
and  missionaries  as  the  twin  curses  of  the  coun- 
try." Space  does  not  permit  any  extended  state- 
ments on  this  point,  but  it  is  the  universal 
testimony  of  the  missionaries  that  the  hostility 
to  them  is  not  felt  by  the  common  people,  except 
as  they  are  excited  by  the  mandarins,  and  that  it 
is  directed,  not  against  their  religious  teaching, 
but  against  their  introduction  of  customs  and 
ideas  which  tend  to  weaken  the  power  of  the 
mandarins  over  them.  The  mandarins  have 
thus  taken  advantage  of  everything  that  could 
arouse  the  superstition  of  the  masses.  As  re- 
ligion has  httle  hold  upon  the  people,  but  tradi- 
tion and  custom  are  all-powerful,  the  leaders 
took  advantage  of  every  breach  of  custom  to 
influence  the  passions  of  the  populace.  With  an 
almost  diabolical  shrewdness,  they  seized  upon 
the  most  philanthropic  work,  and  with  great  in- 
genuity portrayed  that  as  violating  every  precept 
of  humanity.  Medical  aid  was  charged  with  the 
most  revolting  forms  of  mutilation,  schools  were 
described  as  hotbeds  of  vice,  orphanages  as  fur- 
nishing material  for  witchcraft.     The  placards 


CHINA  183 

that  for  some  months  before  the  massacre  at 
Tientsin  were  spread  broadcast  through  the  em- 
pire were  of  the  most  outrageous  type,  and  they 
were  but  samples  of  the  famous  Hunan  placards, 
whose  author  has  recently  ceased  from  his  work 
on  gaining  a  better  knowledge  of  the  work  and 
faith  of  the  men  and  women  he  had  attacked. 
President  Martin,  in  his  recent  book,  "A  Cycle 
of  Cathay,"  answers  conclusively  the  question, 
and  his  testimony  is  that  of  all  careful  observers. 
The  missionaries  have  been  the  most  prominent 
representatives  of  a  new  order  of  things,  and  that 
was  enough  to  arouse  the  bitterest  hatred  of  the 
most  conservative  nation  in  the  world. 

Methods  Adopted.— To  overcome  this  in- 
tense hostility,  every  effort  was  made  to  concili- 
ate the  people,  attract  their  attention,  and  thus 
secure  a  hearing  preparatory  to  direct  evangehstic 
effort.  The  foundations  laid  in  the  earlier  years 
of  preparation  were  built  upon.  Bible  versions 
were  prepared  in  the  colloquials  as  well  as  in  the 
literary  language.  The  press  was  utilized  in  every 
possible  way,  and  with  increasing  success.  The 
one  established  by  S.  Wells  Williams  at  Canton 
was  later  removed  to  Peking,  and  was  followed 
by  the  Presbyterian  press  at  Shanghai,  whose 
output  has  been  marvelous.  There  are  Methodist 
establishments  at  Fuchau,  Peking,  and  Kiukiang, 
and  a  number  of  others  belonging  to  different 
societies.  Schools  were  increased.  One  mis- 
sionary, W.  A.  P.  Martin,  did  noble  service 
for  higher  education  by  accepting  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Imperial  University  of  Peking,  while 
Dr.  Happer  at  Canton  initiated  the  work  which 
developed  later  into  colleges  at  that  place,  in 
Peking,  Tungcho,  and  elsewhere.  Education, 
however,   brought   up   the  same   difficulties   in 


1^4  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

China  as  in  India,  but  perhaps  in  a  more  aggra- 
vated form.  A  number  of  missionaries  were 
opposed  even  to  the  appearance  of  entering  into 
competition  in  regard  to  the  civil-service  exam- 
inations, and  the  work  of  higher  education  has 
been  slower  than  in  some  other  countries.  Of 
late,  however,  as  the  need  of  an  educated  native 
ministry  has  been  increased,  it  has  received  more 
attention,  and  will  undoubtedly  advance  more 
rapidly.  In  this  connection  reference  should  be 
made  to  the  enterprise  started  by  the  Rev.  Gil- 
bert Reid,  called  a  mission  among  the  higher 
classes  in  China.  It  proposes  to  form  an  institute 
for  the  special  purpose  of  removing  the  miscon- 
ceptions of  Christianity  among  the  mandarins  and 
bringing  them  into  sympathy  with  it.  It  has  the 
hearty  indorsement  of  W.  A.  P.  Martin  and  a 
number  of  prominent  missionaries.  The  move- 
ment to  reach  the  students  promises  the  best  of 
results. 

Medical  Work. — In  no  mission  field  has  this 
been  carried  on  more  extensively  or  with  better 
results  than  in  China.  Nowhere  is  the  need 
greater.  The  native  system  of  medicine  is  of 
much  the  same  grade  as  the  witchcraft  of  Africa 
and  the  South  Seas,  at  least  in  its  practical  ap- 
plication. The  crowded  condition  of  the  popu- 
lation engenders  disease,  but  at  the  same  time 
brings  multitudes  of  sufferers  within  easy  access 
of  the  physician  and  surgeon.  The  pioneer  of 
medical  missions,  Dr.  Peter  Parker,  of  the  Amer- 
ican Board,  commenced  his  work  at  Canton  in 
1834,  opened  a  hospital  in  1835,  and  in  the  first 
year  had  received  into  it  nearly  two  thousand 
patients.  From  that  beginning  the  number  has 
increased  until  there  is  scarcely  a  station  in  China 
without  a  medical  missionary  and  at  least  a  dis- 


CHINA  185 

pensary,  while  in  many  of  the  cities  there  are 
several  large  hospitals  under  the  auspices  of  the 
different  missionary  societies.  In  the  conduct 
of  these  great  care  is  taken  to  regard  the  feelings 
and  even  prejudices  of  the  people.  They  have 
been  recognized  as  distinctly  missionary  enter- 
prises, and  preparatory  or  introductory  to  evan- 
gelistic work.  The  seed  sown  has  often  borne 
rich  fruit.  In  close  connection  with  the  medical 
work  are  the  orphanages,  of  which  by  far  the 
greater  number  are  Roman  Catholic.  That 
Church  has  of  late  years  made  comparatively 
little  effort  to  reach  adult  Chinese,  but  has  de- 
voted itself  chiefly  to  gathering  orphan  or  desti- 
tute children  and  educating  them,  in  the  belief 
that  that  is  the  most  effective  way  of  building 
up  a  native  Roman  Cathohc  community.  The 
Protestant  missionaries,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
sought  to  reach  families  through  the  children 
rather  than  to  isolate  them  in  such  establishments. 
The  medical  work  has  been  generally  cordially 
appreciated  by  all  classes  of  the  people,  although 
instances  have  occurred  of  bitter  hostihty  to  it. 
The  orphanages,  however,  have  been  frequently 
the  object  of  attack,  and  have  suffered  greatly, 
probably  because  of  the  prevalent  belief  of  the 
ignorant,  fostered  by  the  mandarins,  that  the 
eyes  and  members  of  the  children  were  used  in 
the  concoction  of  drugs. 

Evangelistic  Work.— This  was  at  first 
chiefly  of  the  nature  of  personal  conversation. 
Audiences  it  was  difficult  to  gather,  and  still  more 
difficult  to  control.  As  the  presence  of  mission- 
aries became  more  familiar,  chapels  were  erected, 
ordinarily  on  side  streets,  so  as  to  avoid  public 
attention  as  much  as  possible.  Later  larger 
buildings  were  erected,  and  in  more  prominent 


l86  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

places,  until  in  many  of  the  cities  churches  of  con- 
siderable size  and  holding  large  audiences  are  to 
be  found.  In  carrying  on  this  evangelistic  work, 
especially  in  itineration  and  in  newer  fields,  the 
missionaries  have  followed  the  earher  custom, 
and  adopted,  to  a  considerable  degree  at  least, 
the  native  dress,  and  acceded  so  far  as  possible 
to  Chinese  customs,  partly  to  avoid  attracting 
unfavorable  notice,  partly  to  gain  the  attention 
of  those  who  would  simply  have  looked  with 
hostility  on  men  or  women  in  the  guise  of  "  for- 
eign devils."  The  fact  that  the  China  Inland 
Mission  has  laid  so  much  stress  upon  this  has 
occasioned  the  opinion  that  its  missionaries  have 
been  more  forward  in  this  particular.  Every 
mission  community  has  followed  this  general 
principle.  In  one  respect  that  mission  has  dif- 
fered from  others — inassociatingmen  and  women, 
married  or  unmarried,  in  the  rougher  pioneer  work. 
The  dangers  and  privations  of  such  work  have 
been,  for  the  most  part,  in  other  missions  assumed 
by  the  men,  though  wherever  stations  have  been 
established  wives  and  single  women  have  formed 
part  of  the  force.  This  has  occasioned  consid- 
erable comment,  often  unfavorable,  based  upon 
the  low  morality  of  the  East.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  so  far  as  appears,  no  great  evils  have  re- 
sulted, while  the  coming  among  the  Chinese 
women  of  their  own  sex  has  been  a  great  assis- 
tance in  reaching  the  communities.  In  general, 
work  among  the  women  has  belonged  to  the  later 
stages,  and,  carried  on  in  the  homes  and  through 
hospital  and  medical  work,  has  done  the  same 
good  as  the  zenana  work  in  India.  If  it  be  true, 
as  Dr.  Martin  says,  that  "woman  ignorant  has 
made  China  Buddhist,"  then  "  woman  educated 


CHINA  187 

may  make  China  Christian" — indeed,  is  already- 
doing  so. 

The  Native  Church.— The  development  of 
native  churches  in  China,  as  elsewhere,  has  been 
the  great  aim  of  mission  work.  It  has,  however, 
been  beset  with  peculiar  difficulties.  The  bitter 
opposition  of  the  mandarins  to  all  acceptance  of 
foreign  customs,  and  the  general  conservatism  of 
the  people,  have  not  been  more  serious  obstacles 
than  the  characteristics  of  the  people.  These 
have  been  set  forth  so  vividly  in  many  books, 
especially  that  by  Arthur  H.  Smith,  of  the 
American  Board,  and  are  so  generally  appreci- 
ated, perhaps  at  more  than  their  full  value,  that 
they  scarcely  need  reference  here.  Their  lack 
of  sincerity,  of  real  convictions  of  any  kind,  the 
natural  result  of  the  curious  mingling  of  the  three 
forms  of  worship,  have  been  perhaps  the  most 
serious  obstacles  to  the  building  up  of  solid 
Christian  churches.  When  a  man  is  Confucian- 
ist,  Buddhist,  or  Taoist,  by  turns  or  all  at  once, 
it  is  not  difficult  for  him  to  think  that  he  can  be 
a  Christian  too,  and  that  without  necessarily  giv- 
ing up  the  other  faiths.  Closely  connected  with 
this  has  been  the  distinctively  mercantile  charac- 
ter of  the  Chinese,  emphasized  by  the  term  "  rice 
Christians,"  denoting  those  who  accepted  the 
new  faith  for  gain.  The  poverty  of  the  people, 
and  the  small  number  that  could  be  gathered  in 
any  one  place,  hindered  the  progress  of  self-sup- 
port, while  the  absolute  need  of  relying  chiefly 
upon  native  evangelists  for  covering  the  enor- 
mous field  developed  a  class  of  missionary  em- 
ployees dependent  on  foreign  funds,  and  made 
the  problem  still  more  difficult.  That  the  ma- 
terial was  there,  and  of  the  best  quality,  needing 


l88  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

only  careful  and  thorough  training,  all  admitted, 
and  the  need  of  many  Chinese  churches,  notably 
those  in  Manchuria,  which  felt  the  burden  of  the 
war  with  Japan,  has  been  noble.  The  difficulties 
have  given  occasion  for  what  is  in  some  respects 
one  of  the  most  notable  books  on  missionary 
methods,  by  the  late  John  L.  Nevius,  of 
the  Presbyterian  mission  at  Chefu,  in  which  he 
advocates,  at  least  for  the  evangelization  of 
China,  a  return  to  the  simpler  church  organiza- 
tion of  the  apostolic  days — a  paid  ministry  giving 
place,  in  small  communities,  to  a  local  eldership, 
under  the  superv-ision  of  a  missionary  or  itinerant 
native  pastor.  When  it  is  remembered  that  ag- 
gressive missionary  work  began  scarcely  more 
than  thirty  years  ago,  the  progress  in  China  may 
well  be  looked  upon  as  most  encouraging,  and 
the  great  revival  of  recent  months,  when  the  in- 
quirers have  been  numbered  among  the  thousands, 
is  but  an  indication  of  what  shall  be  before  long. 
Missionary  Conferences.— One  very  prom- 
inent factor  in  mission  work  in  China  has  been 
the  mutual  relations  of  the  societies.  The  homo- 
geneity of  the  empire,  such  that  each  faced  the 
same  problems,  and  the  close  proximity  of  the 
societies  for  so  long  a  time,  all  being  practically 
confined  to  the  treaty  ports,  would  naturally  have 
led  to  mutual  conference.  This  was  for  the  most 
part  informal  until  1877,  when,  as  the  result  of 
a  proposition  from  the  Presbyterian  Synod  of 
China,  representatives  of  twenty  different  socie- 
ties met  at  Shanghai.  This  was  followed  in  1890 
by  another  conference,  still  larger,  the  126  mem- 
bers of  the  first  having  increased  to  over  400, 
representing  the  mission  work  in  almost  every 
province  of  the  empire.  Each  conference  re- 
sulted in  great  good  to  the  work,  not  merely  from 


CHINA  189 

the  comparison  of  ideas  and  experience,  but 
from  the  definite  steps  taken,  especially  with  re- 
gard to  the  preparation  of  versions  of  the  Bible, 
the  arrangement  and  distribution  of  missionary- 
force,  etc.  It  has  been  doubtless  due  largely  to 
these  meetings  that  the  evil  results  of  denomina- 
tionalism  have  been  to  such  a  degree  lessened  in 
China. 

Formosa.— This  island,  though  belonging 
now  to  Japan,  is  so  distinctively  Chinese  that  its 
mission  history  should  be  connected  with  that  of 
China.  During  the  early  days  of  Dutch  colonies 
there  was  a  Dutch  mission  on  the  island ;  but 
with  the  withdrawal  of  the  colony  the  mission, 
too,  failed,  and  when  first  occupied  by  the  Eng- 
hsh  Presbyterian  Church,  in  1865,  the  country 
was  a  new  mission  field.  Six  years  later  (187 1) 
the  Canada  Presbyterian  Church  sent  George  L. 
Mackay,  M.D.,  to  North  Formosa,  the  English 
society  having  located  in  the  South;  and  since 
then  the  two  missions  have  worked  toward  each 
other,  although  still  they  are  practically  as  dis- 
tinct as  if  in  different  countries.  The  chief  work 
has  been  from  the  beginning  among  the  Chinese 
who  emigrated  from  the  mainland,  overcame 
and  dispossessed  the  aborigines,  and  estabhshed 
themselves  not  merely  as  rulers  but  inhabitants. 
In  dealing  with  them  the  missionaries  have  had 
much  the  same  experiences  as  those  in  China, 
and  the  record  of  mission  work  shows  many  in- 
stances of  great  personal  danger  and  heroism. 
Efforts  have  also  been  made  to  reach  the  abo- 
rigines, including  even  the  head-hunters,  or 
black-flags,  as  they  have  been  called.  These 
last  have  always  been  the  terror  of  the  towns 
and  cities,  and  noted  chiefly  for  their  degrada- 
tion and  cruelty.     Little  has  been  accomplished 


190  DEVELOPiMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

among  any  of  these  tribes,  although  there  have 
been  some  conversions  among  the  Pe-po-ho-an, 
the  more  civiHzed  among  them.  Education  has 
been  carried  on  to  a  good  extent,  and  medical 
missions  have  accomplished  much.  Dr.  Mac- 
kay's  book,  "  In  Far  Formosa,"  gives  a  very 
vivid  picture  of  the  country  and  of  the  mission 
work.  In  general  the  methods  are  the  same  as 
elsewhere  in  China,  with  the  exception  that  Dr. 
Mackay  has,  more  than  most  missionaries,  taken 
his  students  with  him  on  tours,  to  train  them  in 
evangelistic  work. 


VII 

JAPAN  — KOREA 

In  no  field  does  the  history  of  missions  show 
such  rapid  and  startling  changes  as  in  Japan. 
At  two  different  periods  it  has  seemed  as  if  the 
complete  Christianization  of  the  empire  was  al- 
most accomplished,  requiring  only  a  little  more 
time  and  a  Httle  more  effort  on  the  part  of  mis- 
sionaries. The  first  period  was  followed  by  a 
time  of  intense  darkness,  when  the  Christian  faith 
was  all  but  blotted  out  by  a  persecution  perhaps 
the  most  bitter  and  relentless  the  world  has  ever 
known.  The  second  is  now  being  succeeded  by 
a  time  when  the  value  of  the  work  accomphshed 
is  being  tested,  not  by  persecution,  but  by  influ- 
ences closely  akin  to  those  which  have  so  often, 
in  other  lands,  undermined  the  spiritual  life  of 
the  Church. 

Roman  Catholic  Missions. — Themaritime 
discoveries  of  the  sixteenth  century  first  brought 
Japan  to  the  notice  of  the  Christian  world.  As 
early  as  1542  some  Portuguese  traders  inaugu- 
rated a  system  of  barter  with  the  Japanese  ports, 
and  some  of  the  daimios  (feudal  lords)  expressed 
an  interest  in  Christianity.  The  word  came  to 
Xavier  at  Malacca,  where  he  had  met  a  Japanese, 
who  was  converted  under  his  preaching,  and  he 
191 


192  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

Started  for  Japan,  reaching  there  in  August,  1 549. 
The  time  was  propitious.  The  whole  country 
was  divided  among  the  warring  factions  of  the 
daimios,  each  anxious  to  secure  such  preeminence 
as  to  make  him  independent,  and  perhaps  enable 
him  to  aspire  to  the  position  of  shogun  or  tycoon, 
and  nominally  as  the  representative,  really  the 
master,  of  the  mikado,  rule  the  land.  There 
was  no  rehgious  power,  either  in  the  native  Shinto 
(a  combination  of  nature-worship  and  the  deifi- 
cation of  ancestors)  or  in  its  conqueror,  Buddhism. 
Xavier  was  received  with  a  most  cordial  welcome, 
and  his  preaching,  with  his  convert  as  interpreter, 
had  a  wonderful  effect.  He  remained  in  the 
country  two  and  a  half  years,  organized  a  number 
of  congregations,  and  then  left  for  China,  but 
died  before  he  could  begin  his  work  there. 
Others  took  his  place,  and  the  work  spread  mar- 
velously.  In  1581  there  were  200  churches, 
mostly  in  the  west,  but  some  as  far  east  as 
Yedo,  and  150,000  Christians,  drawn  from  every 
class,  and  including  two  daimios.  Then  followed 
embassies  to  the  Pope,  and  the  number  of  con- 
verts increased  until  there  were  (1590)  about 
600,000.  Then  came  a  change.  The  chief 
protector  of  the  Christians  was  assassinated,  and 
General  Hideyoshi,  a  loyal  supporter  of  the  mi- 
kado, came  into  power.  At  first  tolerant  of 
Christianity,  he  became  suspicious  of  its  political 
aims.  The  arrival  of  Franciscans  and  Domini- 
cans, with  their  hatred  of  the  Jesuits,  who  had 
hitherto  been  alone,  combined  with  other  causes 
to  confirm  his  resolve  to  weaken  their  power. 
The  Christian  leaders  were  sent  to  Korea,  then 
at  war  with  Japan  ;  the  priests  were  killed  or  exiled. 
The  work,  however,  went  on,  tliough  more  se- 
cretly;    and   on   Hideyoshi's  death   (1598)    the 


JAPAN  — KOREA  193 

Christians  numbered  a  million  and  a  half.  Then 
came  another  contest,  and  the  victorious  lyeyasu, 
as  soon  as  he  was  fairly  established  in  power, 
commenced  the  persecution  which  resulted  in  the 
expulsion  of  all  foreigners,  the  slaughter  cf  im- 
mense numbers  of  native  Christians,  and  the 
absolute  prohibition  of  Christianity. 

The  Dark  Age.  — lyeyasu's  first  edict  against 
Christianity  was  in  1606,  but  was  not  enforced 
with  rigor.  In  16 14  he  issued  a  stronger  one; 
so  far  as  possible  the  priests  were  transported, 
but  many  secreted  themselves.  Of  the  native 
Christians  comparatively  few  yielded.  Then 
came  the  severest  measures.  Every  foreigner 
was  condemned  to  death,  and  fire  and  sword 
were  used  upon  the  Christians  until  at  last,  to  all 
appearance,  Christianity  was  extinct.  Two  and 
a  half  centuries  later,  on  the  reopening  of  the 
empire,  several  communities  were  found  in  which 
the  rite  of  baptism  was  kept  up,  and  there  was 
still  cherished  the  Christian  name  and  a  weak 
form  of  Christian  faith.  Had  the  Jesuits  done 
as  much  toward  giving  these  people  the  Scrip- 
tures, even  as  they  did  in  the  preparation  of 
grammars,  catechisms,  etc.,  the  result  might  have 
been  a  good  foundation  for  modern  missions. 
These  communities  were  too  weak  and  ignorant 
to  be  a  power  in  the  land. 

The  edict  of  1614  was  pubhshed  all  over  the 
empire,  copies  being  put  in  every  conspicuous 
place.  Not  content  with  absolutely  forbidding 
all  foreigners  to  enter  the  empire,  all  Japanese 
who  vrent  to  foreign  lands,  even  castaways  by 
shipwreck,  were  sentenced  to  death  on  their  re- 
turn. It  was,  however,  impossible  absolutely  to 
close  the  door.  A  Dutch  settlement  continued 
to  exist  on  an  island  fronting   Nagasaki,  and 


194  DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE    FIELD 

though  its  commerce  was  limited  to  one  ship  a 
year,  and  it  seldom  held  more  than  twelve  per- 
sons, it  was  an  object-lesson  in  another  civiliza- 
tion, which  did  not  fail  of  having  an  effect  on 
the  minds  of  many  Japanese.  The  unfortunate 
fishermen  driven  to  other  shores  attracted  atten- 
tion, and  early  in  the  present  century  there  were 
many  efforts  by  foreign  ships  to  secure  their 
restoration  to  their  native  land.  One  attempt  in 
1837,  when  S.  Wells  Williams  and  Gutzlaff  ac- 
companied seven  such  exiles,  but  were  unable  to 
secure  their  admission,  resulted  in  the  first  steps 
toward  a  Japanese  Bible.  Then  came  increasing 
trade,  foreign  ships  were  a  more  frequent  sight, 
and  ill-treatment  of  foreign  sailors  called  for 
government  interference.  This  led  to  the  famous 
visits  of  Commodore  Perry  in  1853  and  1854. 
On  the  first  he  delivered  to  the  shogun  at  Yedo 
a  letter  from  the  President  of  the  United  States. 
On  the  second,  with  seven  ships  of  war,  he  sailed 
up  the  harbor  to  Yedo,  and  with  the  scarcely 
veiled  threat  of  using  his  guns,  secured  the  first 
treaty,  that  opened  two  ports.  This  was  followed 
by  treaties  with  England  and  Russia,  and  an- 
other, more  favorable,  with  America,  until  in 
1859  the  way  was  open,  the  dark  age  had  closed, 
and  Christian  missions  were  again  possible. 

Modern  Missions.  — During  all  these  years 
the  attention  of  the  Christian  world  had  been 
earnestly  directed  to  the  empire.  With  Com- 
modore Perry  was  S.  Wells  Williams,  already 
interested  in  the  Japanese;  and  an  earnest  ap- 
peal from  him  and  others  went  to  the  Church  in 
America  to  be  ready.  Several  visits  were  made 
by  missionaries  in  China  to  Nagasaki,  but  as  yet 
foreign  residence  was  not  permitted.  Early  in 
1859,  however,  when  it  became  evident  that  a 


JAPAN —KOREA  10g 

change  was  at  hand,  missionaries  began  to  come. 
In  May,  two  months  before  the  actual  opening 
of  the  ports,  J.  Liggins  and  C.  M.  WilHams,  of 
the  China  Mission  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  opened  at  Nagasaki  the  Japan  Mis- 
sion of  American  EpiscopaHans.  In  October 
J.  C.  Hepburn,  M.D.  (Presbyterian),  arrived  at 
Kanagawa,  near  Yokohama,  and  the  next  month 
S.  R.  Brown,  D.  B.  Simmons,  M.D.,  and  Guido 
F.  Verbeck,  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church, 
joined  the  companies  at  those  two  places.  The 
next  year  J.  Goble,  of  the  American  Free  Baptist 
Mission,  arrived  at  Kanagawa.  For  ten  years 
these  three  societies  were  alone.  In  1869  the 
first  missionary  of  the  American  Board,  D.  C. 
Greene,  entered  the  field,  but  was  followed  the 
next  year  by  many  more.  In  1869,  also,  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  of  England  opened  a 
mission.  At  that  time  a  revolution  in  the  govern- 
ment was  followed  by  a  change  of  attitude  toward 
foreigners,  and  there  was  a  rush  of  societies  and 
missionaries  to  the  new  and  most  promising  field. 
In  1873  twenty-nine  new  missionaries  arrived, 
one  more  than  the  whole  number  then  on  the 
field,  and  only  two  less  than  the  whole  number 
who  had  come  out  from  1 8  5  9  to  the  end  of  1872. 
At  that  time  the  American  Baptist  Missionary 
Union  took  up  the  work  of  the  Free  Baptists, 
and  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  and  the 
Methodist  Church  of  Canada  entered  the  field. 
At  about  this  time,  also,  the  United  Presbyterians 
of  Scotland  joined  the  company.  Other  societies 
followed:  the  Evangelical  Association  (1876), 
the  Reformed  (German)  Church  (1880),  the 
Methodist  Protestant  Church  (1882),  the  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ  (1883),  the  Southern  and  Cum- 
berland   Presbyterians    (1885),    the    Methodist 


196  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

Episcopal  Church,  South  {1886),  the  American 
Christian  Convention  (1887),  the  Southern  Bap- 
tist Convention  (1889),  the  Lutheran  United 
Synod  (1892).  The  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel  also  has  missionaries,  and  a  number 
of  smaller  organizations.  The  Universalists  of 
America  have  a  mission,  as  also  the  Unitarians. 
The  great  amount  of  work  has  been  done  in  the 
south,  but  the  mission  stations  extend  over  the 
whole  empire.  The  American  Bible  Society, 
which  had  from  the  first  given  valuable  assistance, 
in  1876  established  a  special  agency.  Later  the 
British  and  Foreign  and  the  Scotch  Bible  societies 
sent  representatives,  and  the  three  have  done 
much  work ;  especially  noticeable  was  the  distri- 
bution of  Scriptures  in  the  army  during  the  war 
with  Japan.  The  Tract  Societies,  American  and 
British,  have  also  done  much  toward  providing  a 
Christian  literature. 

The  Missionary  Problem.— The  situation 
at  first  was  very  different  from  that  when  Xavier 
commenced  his  work.  The  anti-foreign  tradition 
was  all-powerful,  not  merely  in  the  government, 
but  among  the  people.  The  presence  of  the 
edicts  in  full  public  view  for  two  and  a  half  cen- 
turies had  identified  Christianity  with  everything 
anti-Japanese,  and  aroused  the  national  feehng 
to  its  highest  pitch.  The  political  situation,  too, 
was  changing.  There  was  a  revival  of  learning, 
and  a  return  to  the  old  Shinto,  which  had  been 
overshadowed  by  Buddhism  and  Confucianism, 
the  latter  of  rather  later  development.  With  this 
came  a  desire  to  restore  the  rule  of  the  mikado 
in  place  of  the  shogunate,  which  had  been  prac- 
tically supreme  since  lyeyasu.  The  treaties  with 
foreign  powers  were  made  a  pretext  for  revolt  in 
favor  of  the  actual  reign  of  the  mikado,  which 


JAPAN  — KOREA  1 97 

culminated  in  a  battle  near  Kioto,  in  January, 
1868,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  shogunate.  The 
leaders  in  the  mikado's  party  were  mostly  from 
the  west,  and  bitterly  opposed  to  all  European 
civilization.  As  they  became  better  acquainted 
with  it,  however,  they  were  converted,  secured 
the  renewal  of  the  treaties,  and  showed  a  dis- 
position to  meet  foreigners  cordially.  For  a 
while  the  old  regime  was  continued ;  but  before 
long  the  edicts  were  first  ignored,  then  removed 
(on  the  ground  that  they  were  so  well  known  as 
to  be  no  longer  necessary),  and  Japan  was  open 
in  an  even  better  and  truer  sense  than  when  the 
Jesuits  landed.  There  were,  however,  certain 
important  facts.  With  all  the  readiness  to  adopt 
foreign  customs,  there  was  a  very  definite  purpose 
to  adapt  them  to  Japanese  ideas.  Foreigners 
were  welcome  to  give  any  assistance  in  their 
power,  but  it  must  be  confined  to  assistance,  not 
allowed  to  develop  into  rule.  The  moral  of  the 
story,  whether  true  or  not,  that  a  Spaniard  had 
said  to  Hideyoshi  that  the  Pope  sends  priests  to 
win  the  people,  then  troops  to  join  the  native 
Christians,  and  thus  gain  a  political  supremacy, 
had  become  deep-rooted  in  the  national  con- 
sciousness, and  presented  a  most  serious  obstacle. 
Other  characteristics  were  both  favorable  and 
unfavorable  to  mission  work.  The  quick  intelli- 
gence of  the  people,  their  easy  assimilation  of 
new  ideas  and  adaptation  of  new  methods,  their 
courtesy  and  cordial  friendhness  of  manner,  their 
intense  patriotism,  eager  to  get  every  advantage 
for  their  country,  even  their  lack  of  the  sense  of 
personality,  making  the  individual  subordinate  to 
the  nation,  community,  and  family,  their  thirst 
for  knowledge,  and  deference  to  those  who  they 
recognize  can  help  them— these  all  were  and  are 


198  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

favorable.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lack  of  a  true 
conception  of  morals,  manifest  both  in  social  and 
commercial  life,  a  tendency  toward  vacillation, 
lack  of  fixedness  of  purpose,  lack  of  appreciation 
of  favors,  and  not  infrequently  ingratitude,  per- 
fect self-confidence — these  have  always  been 
recognized  as  hindrances.  These  characteristics, 
however,  are  not  uniformly  of  one  class  or  the 
other.  Vacillation  offers  an  opening  for  Chris- 
tianity, if  it  hinders  a  consistent  profession  of  it. 
Patriotism,  anxious  to  get  the  good,  is  equally 
anxious  to  repel  any  real  or  fancied  danger  to 
the  national  life.  With  the  revival  of  Shinto, 
that  faith  strengthened  its  hold,  and  Buddhism 
shared  in  the  change.  The  obstacle  to  missions 
presented  by  these,  however,  as  by  Confucianism, 
was  less  religious  than  materialistic  or  national. 
If  Christianity  could  prove  itself  better,  it  was 
free  to  do  so. 

Protestant  missions  in  Japan  have  passed 
through  two  stages,  and  are  now  in  a  third,  each 
quite  distinct  from  the  others.  The  first,  from 
1859  to  1873,  may  be  called  the  period  of  prep- 
aration;  the  second,  from  1873  to  1889,  that  of 
progress ;  and  the  third,  not  yet  complete,  that  of 
reaction. 

Period  of  Preparation.— The  treaties  made 
in  1859  simply  conferred  on  foreigners  right  of 
residence  and  trade  in  certain  localities.  They 
did  not  remove  the  anti-Christian  feehng  that 
had  ruled  for  over  two  centuries,  and  they  gave 
no  privileges  of  preaching.  As  a  result,  the  efforts 
of  the  missionaries  were  limited  chiefly  to  literary 
work,  teaching,  especially  English,  and  the  exer- 
tion of  such  personal  influence  as  they  might 
bring  to  bear.  In  these  lines  very  much  was 
done.     Linguistic  manuals  were  published,  and 


JAPAN  — KOREA  199 

J.  C.  Hepburn's  well-known  dictionary ;  portions 
of  the  Bible  also  were  translated,  and  a  consider- 
able sale  for  all  was  found.  The  fact  that  all 
educated  Japanese  read  Chinese  led  to  the  in- 
troduction of  Chinese  books,  including  the 
Chinese  Bible,  W.  A.  P.  Martin's  "  Evidences  of 
Christianity,"  and  other  books.  Dr.  Hepburn 
used  his  medical  skill  to  great  advantage,  and 
won  many  to  listen  to  Christian  truth.  Guido 
F.  Verbeck  did  a  peculiar  service  in  disarming  offi- 
cial prejudice,  as  S.  Wells  Williams  and  W.  A.  P. 
Martin  had  done  in  China,  making  himself 
not  merely  useful,  but  essential,  to  the  new  men 
who  were  undertaking  to  guide  the  nation ;  so 
that  when  plans  were  desired  for  an  emperial 
university  at  Tokio  (1870),  he  was  called  to  be 
its  head  and  organize  a  scheme  for  national  edu- 
cation. In  1872  an  embassy  was  organized  to 
visit  Western  countries  and  study  Western  civiliza- 
tion, and  it  appeared  that  half  of  its  members 
had  been  his  students  at  Nagasaki.  Evangelistic 
work  was  not  neglected.  With  the  education  in 
English  eagerly  sought  by  young  men,  mostly  of 
the  samurai  or  higher  class,  came  opportunities  to 
preach  ;  and  not  a  few  were  drawn  to  accept  the 
truth,  among  them  being  many  of  the  leaders  of 
later  years.  In  1864  Joseph  Neesima,  after 
hearing  his  first  lessons  in  Christianity  from  the 
Russian  missionary,  Nicolai,  escaped  from  Ha- 
kodate to  Shanghai,  and  worked  his  passage  to 
Boston,  there  to  meet  Alpheus  Hardy,  gain  a  full 
education,  and  return  to  Japan  to  lay  the  foun- 
dations of  the  Doshisha  University.  Meanwhile 
missionary  women,  Mrs.  Hepburn,  Miss  Kidder, 
and  others,  had  been  working  for  the  women  and 
girls.  In  March,  1872,  the  first  Christian  church 
was  organized  at  Yokohama,  the  beginning  of 


200  DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    FIELD 

the  United  Church  of  Christ  in  Japan.  Of  the 
eleven  members,  nine  were  young  men,  and  two 
men  of  middle  age.  That  same  year  a  Yoko- 
hama Translation  Committee  was  formed,  for 
the  completion  of  the  Japanese  Bible.  Thus  the 
foundations  were  laid,  and  everything  was  ready 
for  the  advance. 

Period  of  Progress.  — For  sixteen  years 
(1873-89)  the  work  advanced  at  a  rate  that 
made  the  Church  in  America  and  England  feel 
that  the  whole  empire  might  soon  be  evangelized, 
if  not  converted.  In  a  single  paragraph  it  is  im- 
possible to  give  any  adequate  idea  of  what  was 
accomplished.  The  formal  opposition  of  the 
government  ceased  to  a  considerable  degree  with 
the  removal  of  the  edicts ;  but  had  the  officials 
desired,  they  could  not  have  overcome  the  hos- 
tility of  the  people.  Neesima,  on  his  return  in 
1874,  found  great  difficulty  in  securing  a  permit 
for  his  Doshisha  in  Kioto,  the  sacred  city  of  the 
mikado,  and  aroused  considerable  anxiety  by 
preaching  in  his  old  home.  The  members  of  the 
famous  Kumamoto  Band,  organized  by  Captain 
L.  L.  Janes,  a  West  Point  graduate  and  teacher 
of  a  daimio's  school  in  North  Japan,  suffered  bitter 
persecution.  Missionaries  were  by  no  means  free 
to  travel  or  to  do  much  that  they  would  have 
been  glad  to  accomplish ;  still,  there  was  greater 
freedom.  The  presence,  too,  of  numbers  of 
foreigners,  chiefly  Americans,  in  the  service  of 
the  government  did  much  to  allay  prejudice, 
while  many  exerted  a  strong  Christian  influence. 
The  mission-schools  were  full  to  overflowing,  not 
merely  of  young  men  anxious  to  advance  them- 
selves, but  of  those  who  felt  that  Christianity 
was  to  be  the  salvation  of  their  nation  ;  and  even 
when  they  did  not  themselves  become  Christians, 


JAPAN  — KOREA  201 

they  came  under  Christian  influences,  and  were 
disposed  not  merely  to  withdraw  opposition,  but 
to  give  positive  assistance.  For  the  first  seven 
years  the  increase  in  church-membership,  al- 
though great  compared  with  the  preceding  period, 
was  not  very  large ;  but  then  additions  were 
made  in  large  numbers,  and  in  1889  there  were 
not  far  from  thirty  thousand  professed  Christians. 
In  America  and  England  there  was  great  interest, 
almost  excitement,  and  urgent  appeals  were  made 
to  send  missionaries,  so  that  ere  this  forward 
movement  should  be  checked  the  whole  country 
might  be  reached.  The  American  Board  mission 
achieved  the  greatest  success,  but  all  the  various 
missions  were  full  of  encouragement.  The  Chris- 
tian community,  although  still  but  a  very  small 
proportion  of  the  population,  included  a  con- 
siderable number  of  men  of  influence,  and  it 
seemed  as  if  there  were  no  limit  to  the  progress 
that  might  be  expected  immediately. 

Period  of  Reaction. — This  great  success, 
however,  had  its  elements  of  weakness,  resulting 
from  both  the  characteristics  of  the  people  and 
the  position  of  the  nation.  In  the  Christian 
communities  arose  divergence  of  views  as  to  the 
organization  of  the  churches,  the  relation  of  the 
missionaries  to  the  native  preachers,  the  control 
of  funds,  etc.  In  the  nation  the  relation  held 
toward  the  government  by  foreign  powers  was  a 
cause  of  great  disturbance.  There  arose  a  feeling 
of  jealousy  of  foreigners,  a  fear  lest  the  foreign 
influence  should  become  foreign  domination,  a 
desire  to  assert  themselves,  both  as  communities 
and  as  a  nation.  The  earlier  treaties,  as  in  the 
case  of  China,  included  exterritoriality  clauses, 
removing  foreigners  from  the  control  of  Japanese 
courts.     With  the  introduction  of  the  Napoleon 


202  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

code  and  a  Western  civilization  this  was  felt  to 
be  degrading,  and  efforts  were  made  to  secure  a 
revision  of  the  treaties,  w^hich,  however,  did  not 
meet  with  much  success.  With  the  announce- 
ment of  the  constitution  in  1890  the  Japanese 
felt  that  they  were  fully  entitled  to  hold  their 
own,  and  the  demands  grew  more  urgent,  while  the 
difficulty  in  securing  them  occasioned  much  bit- 
terness. Education,  too,  had  been  carried  to  a 
good  degree  of  perfection.  Japanese  had  studied 
abroad,  and  had  come  home  fully  convinced  of 
their  own  absolute,  or  at  least  potential,  equality 
with  the  rest  of  the  world.  This  spirit  spread 
throughout  the  country,  and  could  not  but  affect 
the  Christian  work.  The  questions  referred  to 
above  will  be  touched  upon  below.  It  is  suffi- 
cient here  to  say  that  there  arose  a  restiveness 
under  what  was  felt  to  be  the  restraint  of  the 
missionaries,  and  a  resolve  to  guide  the  action  of 
the  churches  themselves.  This  was  most  appa- 
rent in  the  churches  connected  with  the  American 
Board,  but  it  also  had  an  influence  among  the 
Presbyterians,  less  among  the  Methodists,  Epis- 
copalians, and  Baptists.  The  result  was  a  falling 
off  in  the  additions  to  the  churches,  and  in  the 
general  activities  of  the  communities,  which  filled 
many  with  anxiety  and  even  fear.  There  was 
also  a  good  deal  of  criticism  of  the  creeds  as  in- 
troduced by  the  missionaries,  and  the  idea  was 
expressed  that  Japanese  Christianity  must  neces- 
sarily differ  from  American  Christianity.  There 
are  indications  of  a  return  to  the  former  condi- 
tions. The  action  of  the  Christian  communities 
during  the  war  with  China  convinced  many  who 
had  been  inclined  to  think  them  anti-national  that 
they  were  thoroughly  loyal,  and  the  wide  distri- 
bution of  Scriptures  in  the  army  accomplished 


JAPAN  — KOREA  203 

much.  The  action  of  other  nations,  notably 
America  and  England,  favoring  revision  of  the 
treaties,  has  softened  antagonisms,  and  a  better 
feeling  exists.  In  the  churches  there  is  manifest 
also  a  new  life,  and  on  every  hand  there  are  again 
words  of  encouragement. 

The  Native  Church.— The  problem,  or 
rather  problems,  connected  with  the  formation 
and  development  of  native  churches,  or  a  native 
Church,  have  been  probably  more  perplexing  in 
Japan  than  in  any  other  mission  field.  The 
causes  for  this  are  easily  seen  :  the  intense  na- 
tional feeling ;  the  hostility  to  even  the  semblance 
of  foreign  domination;  the  strange  blending  of 
independence  with  dependence,  making  individ- 
uals confident  of  their  own  wisdom,  yet  too 
often  unwilling  to  stand  alone  in  the  expression 
of  conviction  ;  the  quick  inteUigence,  grasping,  if 
not  comprehending,  various  phases  of  truth ;  the 
fact  that  the  early  converts,  especially  in  the  Con- 
gregational and  Presbyterian  churches,were  chiefly 
from  the  samurai  or  aristocratic  class,  accustomed 
to  lead  and  not  likely  to  submit  to  dictation— all 
combined  to  make  the  path  to  be  followed  by 
the  missionaries  obscure  and  full  of  danger.  The 
first  missionaries,  Presbyterian,  Reformed,  and 
Episcopal,  represented  the  more  centralized  forms 
of  church  government,  the  more  definite  state- 
ments of  church  belief.  As  the  former  organized 
their  first  local  church,  however,  they  left  large 
liberty  to  its  eleven  members,  preferring  to  em- 
phasize the  substance  of  faith  rather  than  the 
expression  of  belief.  Then  came  the  Congrega- 
tional missionaries,  with  more  flexible  organization 
and  creed,  and  with  them  a  Japanese,  Neesima, 
fully  imbued  with  the  idea  of  independent,  in- 
dividual development.     These  were  followed  by 


204-  DEVELOPxMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

the  Methodists  and  Baptists,  with  their  distinctive 
church  organizations.  The  six  Presbyterian  and 
Reformed  missions  joined  forces  so  far  as  the 
organization  of  native  churches  was  concerned, 
and  the  Episcopahans  did  the  same.  Efforts  to 
bring  the  ^Methodist  bodies  together  failed.  The 
resuh  was  a  sort  of  kaleidoscopic  Christianity, 
which  to  many  of  the  Japanese,  with  their  love 
for  a  concentrated  government  and  desire  for  a 
national  belief  and  worship,  was  confusing  and 
disappointing.  There  were  some,  however,  who 
welcomed  it.  In  the  second  period,  as  the  evils 
of  denominational  differences  became  more  evi- 
dent, there  were  earnest  efforts  to  mitigate  them 
by  still  more  union  between  the  different 
bodies.  The  United  Church  of  Christ  (Presby- 
terian) and  the  Kumi-ai  churches  (Congrega- 
tional) were  urged  to  come  together.  The 
movement  was  cordially  indorsed  by  almost 
all  of  the  missionaries,  as  well  as  by  a  large 
number  of  the  native  pastors.  There  was  some 
opposition  in  America  on  both  sides,  the  one 
dreading  what  was  held  to  be  the  looseness  of 
the  Congregational  organization  and  the  vague- 
ness of  its  creed,  the  other  fearing  that  the  result 
would  be  a  loss  of  individuality.  Neesima  threw 
his  strong  influence  against  union,  not  so  much 
because  of  fear  as  because  he  felt  that  the  Con- 
gregational system  was  needed  to  counteract 
the  tendency  of  the  people  to  lose  their  individu- 
ality and  become  mere  tools  of  an  organization. 
The  plan  failed ;  whether  a  similar  one  will  yet 
succeed  remains  to  be  seen.  At  present  each 
general  class  is  developing  its  own  system  in  its 
own  way.  Certain  special  phases  of  the  topic 
require  special  notice. 

Missionaries  and  Natives.  — At  first  the 


JAPAN  — KOREA  205 

missionaries  were  looked  up  to  and  revered  as 
instructors  and  leaders,  and  their  influence  was 
almost  unlimited.  They  used  this  in  a  very  tact- 
ful way,  seeking  to  guide  rather  than  control. 
The  fact  that  they  were  few  in  number  also 
helped  them  to  magnify  the  personal  element. 
As  their  number  increased,  and,  the  work  pro- 
gressing, there  grew  up  an  educated  native  minis- 
try, two  results  appeared :  the  personal  influence 
was  overshadowed  by  that  of  the  mission  as  an 
organized  body ;  and  the  younger  missionaries 
were  not  regarded  with  the  same  deference  by 
the  natives,  especially  by  some  who,  having 
studied  in  America  or  Europe,  considered  them- 
selves fully  as  well  educated  as  any  of  the  mis- 
sionaries, and,  by  their  Japanese  birth,  more 
competent  to  direct.  The  inevitable  result  was 
a  clash  of  views  in  regard  to  many  matters  affect- 
ing the  development  of  the  Church.  It  was  not 
so  much  that  there  was  personal  hostility,  but 
the  native  pastors  and  leaders  believed  that  they 
knew  better  what  was  needed,  and  were  more 
competent  to  direct,  than  a  body  of  men,  some 
of  whom,  fresh  from  foreign  countries,  yet  had 
an  equal  voice  with  those  of  longer  experience. 
The  American  Board  mission,  as  was  natural,  felt 
this  the  most,  because  of  the  large  number  of 
churches  connected  with  it  and  its  emphasis  of 
individuality.  Next  came  the  Presbyterians. 
Other  denominations  felt  it  in  a  more  limited 
degree,  partly  because  they  had  a  smaller  pro- 
portion of  men  from  the  samurai  order  in  their 
membership. 

Foreign  Funds.— From  the  very  first  it  was 
recognized  by  all  missionaries  and  Japanese,  at 
least  the  leaders  among  the  latter,  that  one  of 
the   most  important   conditions   of  a   successful 


2o6  DEVELOPxMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

Christian  Church  was  that  the  local  churches 
should  be  self-directing,  and  that  this  involved 
self-support  as  a  prime  essential.  Hence  every 
effort  was  put  forth  to  secure  it.  There  were  the 
usual  difficulties  in  the  way:  small  communities 
unable  to  give  largely ;  the  idea  that  foreign 
money  was  plentiful  and  might  as  well  be  used, 
especially  to  relieve  the  poor;  the  contrast  be- 
tween a  mercenary  Buddhism  and  a  free  gospel. 
Still,  as  the  communities  increased  in  size,  the 
question  was  met  frankly  and,  in  the  main,  with 
success.  More  serious,  however,  was  the  ques- 
tion as  to  the  use  of  foreign  money  which  came 
in  aid  or  as  endowment  of  institutions  which, 
while  under  missionary  auspices,  were  looked 
upon  as  distinctively  Japanese.  The  general 
rule  is  that  the  missions  must  control  the  funds 
that  are  committed  to  their  care.  Many  of  the 
Japanese  felt,  as  the  Armenians  had,  that,  as  the 
money  was  really  for  them,  and  they  knew  best 
how  to  use  it,  they  should  have  the  absolute  con- 
trol over  it.  In  such  a  question  there  was,  of 
course,  almost  unlimited  opportunity  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  skill  in  the  avoiding  of  unpleasant  diver- 
gencies, and  in  most  cases,  even  when  there  has 
been  friction,  there  has  been  no  break.  One 
notable  instance  of  an  absolute  break  is  that 
of  the  Doshisha  University,  where  the  Japanese 
board  of  trustees  (Neesima  died  in  1889)  com- 
pletely ignored  the  claims  of  the  Americans, 
through  whom  it  was  founded,  even  to  the  extent 
of  appropriating  the  houses  of  missionaries,  which 
were  held,  under  the  property  laws  of  Japan,  in 
their  name.  Here,  however,  comes  in  another 
topic  of  great  importance. 

Japanese  Christianity.— With  the  organi- 
zation of  the  first  church  it  became  apparent  that 


JAPAN  — KOREA  207 

the  creed  question  would  be  a  most  difficult  one. 
In  China  a  man  who  could  be  Confucianist, 
Buddhist,  and  Taoist  all  at  once  thinks  it  easy  to 
be  Christian  also.  The  Japanese  recognizes  the 
exclusiveness  of  Christianity,  but  claims  that  it 
must  put  on  a  different  garb,  at  least  in  Japan, 
from  what  it  wears  in  Western  lands,  or  even 
across  the  China  Sea.  This  feehng  has  been 
strengthened  by  the  diversities  in  Western  creeds 
as  represented  by  the  missionary  societies,  includ- 
ing of  later  years  the  Unitarians  and  Universahsts, 
and  as  learned  by  Japanese  in  study  in  America 
and  Europe.  If  there  could  be  Episcopahan, 
Presbyterian,  Congregational,  and  other  creeds, 
even  a  Unitarian,  why  might  there  not  be  a  dis- 
tinctive Japanese  creed,  containing  the  substance 
of  all  these,  but  differing  from  all,  even  as  they 
differ  from  one  another.  Recognizing  the 
various  national  characteristics,  the  missionaries 
sought  to  guide  rather  than  control  in  this  as  in 
other  matters ;  anxious  to  preserve  the  sub- 
stance, confident  that  with  the  development  of 
Christian  life  Christian  thought  would  not  go  far 
wrong,  while  at  the  same  time  reahzing  that 
thought  must  to  a  great  degree  direct  the  trend 
of  life.  Here,  too,  the  bodies  that  felt  the  diffi- 
culty most  seriously  were  the  Congregational  and 
Presbyterian.  The  United  Church  of  Christ, 
after  much  discussion,  adopted  a  creed  which  met 
the  exigency  well.  The  Kumi-ai  churches  were 
a  little  more  liberal,  but  strictly  evangeHcal. 
Then  arose  another  difficulty.  How  far  were 
these  to  control  their  own  members?  Instances 
developed  of  divers  interpretations  of  these  creeds. 
What  liberty  was  allowable?  Here  again  the 
greatest  strife  was  in  the  Kumi-ai  body,  and  be- 
came most  manifest  in  the   Doshisha.      By  its 


2o8  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

constitution  that  is  a  Christian  university ;  but 
what  is  Christian?  The  visit  of  a  special  depu- 
tation from  the  American  Board,  in  1895,  failed 
to  secure  harmony ;  and  when,  the  following 
year,  the  trustees  put  at  the  head  of  the  institution 
men  whom  the  most  liberal  missionaries  could  not 
consider  evangelical,  rather  than  seem  to  indorse 
such  views,  those  hitherto  connected  with  the  in- 
stitution as  teachers  resigned.  A  large  number 
of  the  pastors  and  preachers  do  not  indorse  the 
trustees,  see  the  danger  of  laxity  of  the  statement 
of  belief,  and  are  tending  toward  a  more  conser- 
vative position.  The  action  of  the  trustees  has 
also  been  very  severely  criticized  by  portions  of  the 
native  press  as  really  dishonest, and  the  nativeChris- 
tians  of  all  denominations  unite  in  censuring  it. 

Evangelism.— The  general  effect  of  the 
period  of  reaction  upon  missionary  work,  as 
upon  the  native  churches,  has  been  to  emphasize 
evangelism.  Other  lines  have  had  their  influence 
and  done  their  share.  General  education  is  now 
so  well  provided  by  the  government  that  mis- 
sionary work  in  this  direction  is  scarcely  needed 
for  more  than  the  training  of  preachers  and 
teachers.  Native  physicians  have  taken  the  place 
of  medical  missionaries.  Philanthropic  work, 
orphanages,  etc.,  are  coming  to  the  front  under 
missionary  direction ;  but  the  great  province  of 
the  missionary  force  is  that  of  training  workers, 
of  assisting  the  native  Christians  by  counsel,  and 
of  evangelizing  sections  as  yet  unreached.  Of 
this  last  there  is  much  yet  to  be  done,  and  the 
Japanese  Churches,  realizing  the  need,  are  taking 
up  the  work  nobly.  With  more  aggressive  Chris- 
tian work  comes  a  more  spiritual  Christian  life, 
and  the  latest  reports  indicate  a  hopefulness  that 
has  not  been  mnnifest  for  some  years. 


JAPAN  — KOREA  ^09 

Roman  Catholic  and  Greek  Missions. 

— With  the  opening  of  the  country  the  Roman 
CathoHcs  were  among  the  first  to  enter  and  seek 
out  the  communities  which  had  survived  the  long 
time  of  oppression.  Their  work  has  developed, 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Japan  is  a 
strong  church,  numbering  nominally  as  many  as, 
or  more  than,  the  Protestants.  In  fact,  however, 
it  is  weaker,  as  its  membership  includes  children 
as  well  as  adults.  It  labors  under  the  disadvan- 
tage of  the  prejudice  of  the  past  centuries  and 
the  obedience  demanded  to  a  foreign  ruler.  The 
progress  of  the  Greek  Church  has  been  phenom- 
enal. Started  in  187 1  by  a  Russian  priest, 
Nicolai  Kasatkin,  chaplain  of  the  Russian  con- 
sulate at  Hakodate,  it  has  developed  until  there 
is  a  community  of  over  twenty-two  thousand, 
about  half  the  Protestant  church-membership. 
The  work  has  been  done  almost  entirely  by  na- 
tive priests,  mostly  educated  in  Russia,  very  few 
foreigners,  never  more  than  three  or  four,  being 
connected  with  it  at  a  time.  The  cathedral  at 
Tokio  is  described  as  the  finest  ecclesiastical  edifice 
in  the  empire,  and  is  famous  for  its  choral  music. 
Korea. — The  history  of  missions  in  Korea 
shows  much  the  same  general  features  as  have 
been  manifest  in  China  and  Japan.  There  was 
the  opening  of  the  country  to  foreigners,  and  the 
advent  of  Roman  Catholics,  followed  by  bitter 
persecutions  and  a  closing  of  the  doors  fully  as 
effectively  as  in  the  adjoining  empires.  The  first 
Roman  Catholic  converts  were  baptized  toward 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  and  the  growth  of 
the  Church  was  rapid,  notwithstanding  severe 
persecution,  until  1839,  when  all  foreigners  and 
thousands  of  native  Christians  were  put  to  death. 
Others  took  their  place  until  1864,  when,  on  a 


2IO  DEVELOPMENT   OF    THE    FIELD 

change  of  government,  a  more  effective  persecu- 
tion took  place,  and  the  country  was  closed 
against  all  foreign  intercourse.  About  fifteen 
years  later  John  Ross,  a  missionary  of  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland  at  Mukden,  in 
Manchuria,  came  in  contact  with  some  Koreans, 
learned  their  language,  translated  the  New  Tes- 
tament, and  sent  a  large  number  of  copies  over 
the  border.  These  were  eagerly  received  and 
read.  Inquirers  sought  Mr.  Ross,  and  a  number 
were  baptized  ;  but  his  efforts  to  cross  the  border 
failed,  and  the  communities  had  to  wait  for  the 
advent  of  missionaries  from  the  south.  In  1882, 
largely  through  the  good  offices  of  lA  Hung 
Chang,  a  treaty  was  made  with  the  United  States, 
and  three  ports  were  thrown  open.  Two  years 
later  the  Presbyterian  Board  sent  Dr.  H.  N.  Allen 
to  Seoul.  A  riot  occurring  soon  after,  in  which 
a  prince  was  wounded,  Dr.  Allen  won  great 
favor  by  successfully  treating  him;  and  when, 
later,  several  Methodist  and  Presbyterian  mis- 
sionaries came,  they  found  a  cordial  welcome. 
These  societies  were  followed  by  others :  the 
Southern  Presbyterians,  and  the  Presbyterians  of 
Austraha,  a  Canada  society,  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  and  others,  until 
there  are  now  eight  represented.  The  war  be- 
tween China  and  Japan  for  the  possession  of  the 
country  affected  the  mission  work  seriously,  but 
in  some  respects  gave  it  prestige,  as  in  more  than 
one  instance  the  king  turned  to  the  missionaries 
for  counsel  and  even  for  protection,  and  the 
various  embassies  called  upon  them  for  assistance 
as  interpreters.  The  call  for  missionaries  and  the 
means  to  prosecute  the  work  has  been  very  great, 
and  although  the  occupation  of  the  field  is  so 
recent,  the  opportunities  are  very  encouraging. 


VIII 

THE    PACIFIC 

In  the  early  mission  activity  of  the  Protestant 
Church  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  took  a  very 
prominent  place.  Carey's  first  wish  was  to  go  to 
Tahiti ;  the  London  Society's  first  mission  was  to 
those  islands;  and  the  interest  of  the  American 
Churches  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  was  coordinate 
with  that  in  the  great  empire  of  India,  the  story 
of  Obookiah  being  one  of  the  influences  that  led 
to  the  foundation  of  the  American  Board.  They 
have  been,  in  a  peculiar  sense,  Protestant  mis- 
sion fields,  no  Roman  Cathohcs  having  visited 
them  until  they  witnessed  the  success  and  sought 
to  share  in  it.  In  general  these  missions  have 
presented  much  the  same  features :  a  period  of 
long-continued  toil,  with  great  danger  and  fre- 
quent martyrdoms ;  at  last  a  wonderful  victory. 
In  some  cases  there  seemed  to  be  already  a  wait- 
ing for  the  gospel,  but  in  most  the  contest  was  a 
long  and  hard  one.  The  missionary  problem  was 
a  simple  one  compared  with  that  presented  in 
such  countries  as  Japan,  China,  India,  or  even 
Africa,  but  it  was  not  the  less  difficult.  There 
were  no  great  systems  of  faith,  no  strongly  in- 
trenched civilizations  to  overcome,  but  there  was 
as  low  a  degradation  of  human  character  as  it  is 

211 


212  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

possible  to  conceive  of  to  convert  and  elevate. 
The  history  must  be  chiefly  annals.  For  the  sake 
of  convenience  it  will  be  divided  into  five  sec- 
tions, taken  in  the  orderof  occupation  :  Polynesia, 
New  Zealand,  Melanesia,  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
and  Micronesia. 

Polynesia. — This  division  includes  the  So- 
ciety, Friendly,  Samoa,  Hervey,  Austral,  and 
other  lesser  groups,  and  the  large  Paumotu  or 
Low  Archipelago.  Attention  was  directed  to 
them  by  the  voyages  of  Captain  Cook ;  and  the 
description  of  the  people,  especially  of  the  Society 
Islands,  including  Tahiti  or  Otaheite,  led  many 
to  believe  that  everything  was  ready  for  the 
preaching  of  the  truth.  Carey's  wish  to  go  there 
himself  was  frustrated ;  but  when  the  London 
Missionary  Society  was  formed  this  was  the  field 
that  they  decided  upon  for  their  initial  enterprise. 
The  ship  Duff^  with  thirty  missionaries,  sailed 
from  London  in  August,  1796,  but  did  not  reach 
Tahiti  till  March,  1797.  They  received  the 
warmest  welcome,  and  the  greater  portion  landed, 
a  few,  however,  going  on  to  the  Friendly  Islands, 
farther  west.  The  reports  sent  back  were  so 
glowing  that  a  new  company  was  started,  which, 
however,  was  obhged  by  privateers  to  return  to 
England.  A  little  residence  on  the  island  opened 
the  eyes  of  the  missionaries.  The  intense  sav- 
agery of  the  people  became  manifest  in  its  most 
revolting  forms,  and  it  seemed  as  if  there  could 
be  no  lower  depths  of  degradation.  The  king, 
indeed,  welcomed  the  missionaries,  and  gave 
them  ground  for  their  buildings ;  and  with  the 
aid  of  some  sailors  found  on  the  island,  and  who 
assisted  as  interpreters,  services  were  held,  the 
language  was  studied,  and  every  effort  made  to 
convert  the  people.      There  was,  however,  no 


THE    PACIFIC  213 

success.  There  were  only  four  ministers  in  the 
whole  body  of  missionaries,  the  remainder  being 
uneducated  artisans,  carpenters,  shoemakers,  etc. 
After  eight  years  a  war  broke  out,  and  the  mis- 
sionaries withdrew  to  another  island  of  the  group, 
and  eventually  most  of  them  went  to  New  South 
Wales,  feeling  that  the  other  field  was  hopeless. 
With  the  settlement  of  the  revolt,  however,  the 
new  king  sent  word  to  them  urging  their  return, 
and  several  did  so,  joining  the  few  who  had  re- 
mained. 

Results. — Then  commenced  the  results  of  the 
earlier  labors.  The  king,  Pomare,  and  several  of 
the  chiefs  renounced  idolatry  and  professed 
Christianity.  The  idols  were  destroyed,  human 
sacrifices  ceased,  and  the  entire  aspect  of  the 
island  changed.  Soon  after  a  constitution  was 
prepared,  based  upon  Christianity,  and  pro- 
claimed by  the  king  as  the  law.  A  Tahitian 
missionary  society  was  formed  for  the  spread  of 
Christianity  to  other  islands.  Every  effort  was 
made  for  the  civilization  of  the  people,  and  the 
next  twenty  years  were  years  as  wonderful  for 
their  progress  as  the  previous  time  had  been  dis- 
couraging. Then  came,  in  1843,  ^^^  efforts  of 
French  consuls,  assisted  by  Americans,  to  force 
the  sale  of  liquor,  followed  the  next  year  by  the 
annexation  of  the  islands  to  France.  The 
islanders  revolted,  and  the  queen  left ;  but  the 
French  conquered,  and  she  returned.  The 
French  rule  was  bitter  against  the  missionaries, 
and  at  last  they  were  compelled  to  leave  the 
island,  while  the  Roman  Catholics  sought  to 
reap  the  result  of  political  support.  The  fruit  of 
the  early  training,  however,  remained,  and,  not- 
withstanding the  bitter  trial,  large  numbers  held 
firm.     The  London  Missionary  Society,  finding 


214  DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    FIELD 

itself  driven  from  the  field,  urged  the  Paris  Evan- 
gelical Society  to  take  up  the  work.  It  did  so 
in  1865,  and  the  Tahiti  churches  have  steadily- 
grown  since  then.  From  Tahiti  the  work  spread 
to  neighboring  islands  of  the  group,  and  on  to 
other  groups.  A  chief  of  one  of  the  Austral 
islands,  driven  out  of  his  course,  landed  at  one 
of  the  Society  islands  in  1821.  He  saw  the  re- 
sults of  the  missionary  work,  with  his  associates 
renounced  idolatry,  and  with  two  native  helpers 
returned  to  their  home  to  preach  the  truth.  An 
object-lesson  in  the  weakness  of  their  superstitions 
broke  the  power  of  the  priests,  the  temples  were 
destroyed,  and  these  islands  shared  in  the  revival 
at  Tahiti.  At  almost  the  same  time  the  Pearl 
and  Hervey  Islands  were  occupied  by  missionaries 
or  native  Tahitians,  and  in  each  case  they  met 
with  great  success.  At  Rarotonga,  the  largest 
of  the  Hervey  or  Cook's  Islands,  there  was  a  rate 
of  progress  greater  than  in  any  other  group.  Be- 
fore any  missionary  had  set  foot  on  the  island 
two  native  preachers  had  won  over  the  whole 
people.  From  the  north  came  reports  of  the 
peculiar  savagery  of  the  Samoan  islanders,  and 
the  missionaries  were  urgent  to  reach  them.  For 
some  time  every  effort  failed  to  secure  a  vessel 
strong  enough  for  the  long  voyage.  At  last  they 
succeeded,  and  going  to  the  Tonga  group,  where 
the  Wesleyans  had  taken  up  the  work  from  which 
the  London  Society  had  been  driven,  they  found 
a  Samoan  chief,  took  him  with  them,  as  well  as 
some  native  teachers  from  the  Society  Islands, 
and  commenced  the  work  whose  results  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson  has  praised  so  highly.  Every- 
where that  the  French  have  gone  the  mission 
work  has  been  sadly  hindered.  It  has  not, 
however,  failed,  and   the  general  condition  of 


THE    PACIFIC  215 

Polynesia  to-day,  as  compared  to  that  of  a  cen- 
tury ago,  is  a  most  eloquent  witness  to  the  power 
of  the  gospel.  In  the  other  groups  comparatively 
little  missionary  work  has  been  done,  but  the 
influences  from  these  groups  have  been  felt  every- 
where. 

New  Zealand. — The  apostle  of  New  Zealand 
and  the  Maoris  was  the  Rev.  Samuel  Marsden, 
chaplain  of  a  penal  settlement  in  Australia.  He 
was  greatly  struck  by  the  fine  appearance  of  the 
Maoris  who  came  occasionally  as  sailors,  and  in 
1807  urged  the  Church  Missionary  Society  to 
send  him  to  them  as  a  missionary.  After  nu- 
merous delays,  in  18 14  he  secured  a  ship,  and, 
with  some  associates  and  a  Maori  chief  whom  he 
had  befriended,  sailed  for  the  island,  landing  at 
the  very  place  made  famous  by  a  terrible  mas- 
sacre by  the  Maoris  of  a  ship's  crew.  He  won 
the  confidence  of  the  natives,  and  was  able  to 
preach.  For  eleven  years  there  were  no  results, 
and  the  missionaries,  including  the  Wesleyans 
who  arrived  in  1822,  were  frequently  in  great 
danger.  In  1825  the  first  conversion  took  place. 
Five  years  more  passed,  and  then  commenced  a 
movement  like  that  in  so  many  other  places  in 
the  Pacific.  The  whole  nation  turned  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  when,  in  1842,  Bishop  Selwyn  arrived 
at  his  new  diocese,  he  saw  "a  whole  nation  of 
pagans  converted  to  the  faith."  From  that  time 
the  advance  has  been  rapid,  and  though  the  race 
has  lost  heavily  in  numbers,  its  high  character  is 
recognized  by  all.  The  Maoris  have  furnished 
great  assistance  in  the  well-known  Melanesian 
mission  inaugurated  by  Bishop  Selwyn,  and  their 
preachers  and  pastors  have  been  men  of  great 
power.  With  the  establishment  of  New  Zealand 
as  a  British  colony,  and  the  influx   of   P^nghsh 


2l6  DEVELOPMENT    OE    THE    FIELD 

colonists,  ocher  Churches  have  also  come  in  and 
shared  in  the  work  for  these  people. 

Melanesia.— The  Melanesian  group  includes 
the  islands  south  of  the  equator  and  between 
Australia  and  Polynesia.  The  missionary  interest 
centers  chiefly  in  the  Fiji  Islands  and  the  New 
Hebrides.  With  them  are  associated  a  Polynesian 
group,  the  Tonga  or  Friendly  Islands.  These 
last  were  occupied  by  representatives  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society  at  the  same  time  as 
Tahiti,  but  the  bitter  savagery  of  the  people 
made  it  impossible  for  them  to  remain.  In  1822 
the  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society  sent  a  mission- 
ary to  Tonga,  who  succeeded  in  landing  and 
concihating  the  people,  finding  efficient  help  in 
the  presence  of  an  English  sailor,  a  survivor  of  a 
ship's  crew  that  had  been  massacred,  and  who 
had  become  a  thorough  islander  in  manners  and 
language.  As  in  other  instances  the  first  friend- 
hness  changed  to  hostility,  but  meanwhile  some 
fruits  appeared,  and  patience,  tact,  and  persever- 
ance carried  the  day.  After  thirteen  years  of 
labor  there  came  a  great  revival,  and  from  that 
time  the  work  progressed,  until,  in  1870,  it  was 
claimed  that  not  a  single  heathen  was  to  be 
found  anywhere  in  the  group.  This  work  in  the 
Friendly  Islands  led  to  that  in  Fiji.  The  Fijians 
were  noted  as  atrocious  cannibals,  and  of  the 
most  violent  and  treacherous  character,  but  the 
great  revival  in  the  Friendly  Islands  in  1835  was 
followed  by  an  attempt  to  convert  them.  Two 
missionaries  with  their  families,  several  native 
teachers,  and  a  few  Fijians  landed  at  one  of  the 
islands,  and  commenced  the  contest,  which  was 
one  of  the  fiercest  in  missionary  annals.  No- 
where did  the  worst  forms  of  savagery  seem  so 
overpowering.     Tlie  heroism  of  the  missionaries 


THE    PACIFIC  217 

was  fully  matched  by  that  of  their  native  asso- 
ciates. It  was  a  long  struggle.  Then  again, 
after  ten  years  of  toil,  the  reward  came,  and  the 
whole  people  seemed  to  turn  at  once  from  their 
old  life.  The  revulsion  was  almost  fearful.  The 
horror  of  their  past  seemed  to  take  hold  upon 
them,  and  the  missionaries  were  obliged  in  some 
cases  almost  to  compel  them  to  eat,  to  save  life. 
The  change  was  complete,  and  the  growth  of  the 
Christian  community  rapid.  As  with  the  Friendly 
Islands,  so  here  there  arose  the  desire  to  extend 
the  blessing  they  had  received.  To  the  north- 
west, a  long  distance  away,  was  the  island  of 
New  Britain,  now  under  German  rule,  known  as 
New  Pomerania,  a  part  of  the  Bismarck  Archi- 
pelago. It  had  the  same  reputation  as  Fiji, 
perhaps  even  worse,  but  to  it  the  Fijians,  led  by 
a  devoted  missionary,  went.  A  portion  of  the 
company  fell  victims,  and  the  rest  were  rescued 
by  the  missionary  with  a  lesson  in  Christian  force. 
But  the  contest  was  not  given  up,  and  the  seeds 
of  Christian  truth  were  planted. 

New  Hebrides. — Mission  work  "in  the  New 
Hebrides  was  commenced  by  John  Williams,  of 
the  London  Society's  mission  at  the  Society 
Islands.  Following  the  wonderful  revival  at 
Tahiti,  he  led  native  teachers  in  the  opening  up, 
first  of  the  Hervey  and  then  of  the  Samoan 
Islands.  With  broken  health  he  returned  to 
England,  but  after  four  years  of  rest  he  again 
took  up  pioneering,  and  started  for  the  New 
Hebrides  in  1839.  At  Eromanga  he  was  met 
by  furiously  hostile  natives,  probably  enraged  by 
harsh  treatment  from  sailors,  and  was  murdered. 
During  the  following  years  visits  were  made  to 
the  islands  from  Samoa,  and  a  number  of  native 
teachers  were  left  there,  many  of  whom  suffered 


2l8  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

death  at  the  hands  of  the  islanders.  In  1848 
John  Geddie,  of  Prince  Edward's  Island,  sent 
out  by  the  Presbyterian  Church,  succeeded  in 
establishing  himself  at  Aneityum.  Already  some- 
what prepared  for  his  work  by  study  of  the  lan- 
guage at  Samoa,  and  possessing  great  tact  and 
fertility  in  expedients,  he  met  with  less  difficulty 
than  was  experienced  in  many  places.  There 
was  some  bitter  opposition,  but  the  first  church 
was  organized  in  1852,  and  from  that  time  the 
work  on  that  island  progressed.  Attempts  to 
occupy  the  other  islands,  Fotuna,  Aniwa,  Tanna, 
and  Eromanga,  did  not  meet  with  the  same  suc- 
cess. Especially  severe  was  the  contest  with 
heathenism  over  the  last  two.  A  tablet  in  the 
church  at  Dillon's  Bay  in  Eromanga  gives  the 
names  of  six  martyred  missionaries.  The  records 
of  Tanna,  while  they  show  no  martyrdoms  of 
missionaries,  are,  if  possible,  even  fuller  of  evil 
and  outrage.  Eromanga  conquered  has  shown 
great  advance,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  other 
islands.  All  have  been  made  well  known  to  the 
Christian  Church  by  the  vivid  descriptions  of  the 
work  by  John  G.  Paton,  to  whom,  perhaps,  more 
than  to  any  other,  is  due  the  evangelizing  of 
Aniwa  and  Tanna.  One  peculiarity  of  the  work 
in  the  New  Hebrides  is  the  union  of  the  various 
Presbyterian  societies  of  Canada,  Scotland,  and 
Austraha  in  the  work,  forming  a  New  Hebrides 
Mission  Synod. 

Melanesian  Mission.— This  was  founded 
in  1847  by  Bishop  Selwyn,  of  New  Zealand,  as 
the  outcome  of  the  great  work  done  among  the 
Maoris,  for  the  purpose  of  reaching  the  islands 
of  that  section.  The  work  has  been  in  the  New 
Hebrides  group,  that  portion  not  reached  by  the 
Presbyterian  mission,  and  the  Loyalty,  Banks, 


THE    PACIFIC  219 

and  Santa  Cruz  Islands.  This  last  group  was 
noted  for  the  ferocity  of  the  islanders,  and  two 
missionaries,  one  of  them  Bishop  Patteson,  who 
succeeded  Bishop  Selwyn,  and  a  large  number  of 
foreigners,  some  of  them  men  who  sought  espe- 
cially to  assist  both  islanders  and  missionaries, 
were  murdered.  In  every  case  there,  as  else- 
where, the  times  of  greatest  danger  have  been 
followed  by  almost  marvelous  results ;  and  while 
the  work  is  by  no  means  complete,  and  is  being 
prosecuted  with  vigor,  there  is  every  prospect  of 
speedy  success,  in  redeeming  all  the  islands  of 
that  region.  As  in  the  other  missions  in  the 
Pacific,  while  the  missionaries  have  been  the 
leaders,  a  large  part  of  the  work  has  been  done 
by  the  native  preachers  and  teachers.  The  New 
Zealand  Church  has  taken  the  mission  as  its  own, 
and  contributed  both  in  workers  and  funds,  al- 
though a  considerable  portion  of  the  income  is 
received  from  England. 

Hawaiian  Islands.— Missions  to  these 
islands  were  begun  by  the  American  Board  in 
18 19.  Attention  had  been  directed  to  them  by 
the  murder  of  Captain  Cook  (1779),  but  still  more 
by  the  pathetic  story  of  Henry  Obookiah,  who, 
after  losing  his  parents  in  a  tribal  war,  had  been 
taken  prisoner,  and  had  escaped  in  a  ship  to 
New  Haven  in  1809.  The  result  was  the  send- 
ing of  Hiram  Bingham  and  Asa  Thurston  and 
others.  They  reached  the  islands  in  1820,  and 
found  a  most  unusual  condition  of  things.  Kame- 
hameha  I.,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  which 
ruled  the  islands  so  many  years,  had  just  died. 
He  had  introduced  many  changes,  under  the 
influence  of  Vancouver,  the  navigator  and  a 
lieutenant  under  Captain  Cook,  had  encouraged 
mechanic  arts,  and  introduced  firearms  and  other 


220  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

innovations.  He  had  also  solidified  his  power, 
using  the  native  superstitions,  especially  that  of 
tabu,  until  he  was  supreme.  On  his  death  there 
was  a  general  revolt  against  the  oppression  of 
the  tabu,  resulting  in  the  destruction  of  the  idols 
and  temples,  and  the  apparent  breaking  up  of 
the  power  of  the  native  religion.  This,  however, 
was  from  no  religious  impulse,  but  rather  to  give 
greater  freedom  for  the  gratification  of  passions. 
The  people,  of  a  gentle  disposition  (the  murder 
of  Captain  Cook  was  rather  accidental  then  pre- 
meditated), had  been  a  prey  to  the  foreign  sailors, 
and  the  introduction  of  disease  was  already 
undermining  their  national  hfe.  The  king  ap- 
parently sought  to  counteract  this  somewhat,  and 
the  revolt  was  one  in  favor,  not  of  freedom,  but 
of  license.  It  furnished,  however,  an  opportunity, 
and  within  two  years  the  principal  chiefs  agreed 
to  recognize  the  Ten  Commandments  as  the  basis 
of  government.  There  was  opposition,  sometimes 
very  bitter,  partly  from  the  people,  who  were 
unwilHng  to  admit  any  influences  restrictive  of 
their  habits,  partly  from  foreigners,  chiefly  Eng- 
lish and  American  sailors,  who  found  their  op- 
portunities endangered.  There  were  threats  of 
foreign  occupation,  of  trouble  with  the  English 
government,  etc.  These  last  were  met  by  the 
timely  visit  of  some  Enghsh  missionaries  from 
the  Society  Islands,  but  the  others  hampered  the 
work  greatly.  Still  it  progressed.  In  eight  years, 
preaching  and  teaching  had  extended  widely; 
there  had  been  many  conversions,  culminating 
in  a  revival  of  great  power.  Ten  years  more, 
and  in  1838  one  of  the  most  remarkable  revivals 
in  the  history  of  missions  took  place,  about  27,000 
being  received  into  the  churches  during  six  years. 
By   1863  the  total  number  received  has  been 


THE    PACIFIC  221 

estimated   at   50,000,  while  the  membership  at 
that  date  was  not  less  than  20,000. 

Withdrawal  of  the  Mission.— At  this  date 
(1863)  it  seemed  that  the  work  of  the  mission 
was  practically  complete.  Christianity  was  the 
recognized  reHgion  of  the  islands.  There  were 
all  the  characteristics  of  a  Christian  community 
— churches,  schools,  and  colleges,  printing- 
presses,  a  Christian  literature.  Paganism  was 
not  destroyed,  but  Christianity  was  so  strong 
that  it  seemed  wrong  to  take  mission  funds  for 
what  the  native  churches  certainly  ought  to  be 
able  to  do  themselves.  Moreover  their  missionary 
activity  had  been  already  developed  by  the  for- 
mation of  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association, 
which  had  assisted  in  the  American  Board's  mis- 
sion in  Micronesia.  Accordingly  the  Board 
closed  its  mission,  leaving  only  a  small  force  to 
assist  in  the  training  of  native  preachers.  This 
withdrawal,  however,  did  not  mean  the  with- 
drawal of  Americans.  Under  the  special  call 
attended  with  the  rapid  development  of  the 
work,  a  very  large  force  of  missionaries  had 
gone  out.  Some  of  these  remained  as  pastors 
of  the  churches,  others  as  teachers,  or  connected 
with  various  public  interests.  Their  children, 
too,  grew  up  in  the  islands,  looked  upon  them  as 
their  home,  and  with  the  development  of  com- 
mercial and  other  enterprises  became  a  strong 
element  in  the  population,  having  the  entire  con- 
fidence of  those  who  sought  the  best  interests  of 
the  people.  There  were,  however,  other  ele- 
ments, chief  among  them  foreign  adventurers, 
who  looked  upon  the  people  as  legitimate  prey, 
and  a  number  of  natives  who  sought  the  return 
of  the  old  regime.  Kamehameha  IV.  had  shown 
some  of  this  feeling  himself.     He  died  in  1863, 


222  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

just  as  the  mission  was  closed,  and  his  successor, 
Kamehameha  V.  (Prince  Lot),  threw  his  whole  in- 
fluence on  the  side  of  heathenism.  Among  other 
things  he  issued  printed  licenses  to  about  three 
hundred  Kahunas— native  witch-doctors,  really 
sorcerers.  These  gained  a  wonderful  influence, 
despite  all  that  could  be  done.  The  capital  be- 
came a  headquarters  for  their  schools,  and  they 
threatened  for  a  time  to  overpower  everything. 
Even  some  of  the  Christians  felt  the  power  of 
their  terrorism.  King  Kalakana  (1874-91)  gave 
them  encouragement,  but  his  sister,  Queen  Lihuo- 
kalani,  tried  to  check  them,  especially  after  the 
almost  incredible  atrocities  of  one  of  their  leaders 
early  in  her  reign.  Since  the  revolution  and  the 
proclamation  of  the  republic  their  power  has 
greatly  diminished.  The  advent  of  large  numbers 
of  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Portuguese  has  intro- 
duced other  disturbing  influences,  but  in  general 
the  later  history  of  the  Hawaiian  churches  has 
been  most  encouraging. 

Micronesia.— This  includes  the  groups  north 
of  the  equator  and  of  Melanesia — the  Gilbert, 
Marshall,  Caroline,  Ladrone,  and  Radack  Islands. 
Missions  have  been  carried  on  chiefly  in  the  first 
three  by  the  American  Board  and  the  Hawaiian 
Evangelical  Association.  The  former  has  fur- 
nished and  supported  the  American  missionaries ; 
the  latter  has  been  represented  by  native  Ha- 
waiian evangelists  and  teachers.  The  first  stations 
were  at  Kusaie  and  Ponape  in  the  CaroHne 
Islands.  Later  Apaiang  in  the  Gilbert  Islands 
and  Ebon  of  the  Marshall  group  were  occupied. 
The  work  has  shown  much  the  same  characteris- 
tics as  elsewhere  in  the  Pacific,  except  that  there 
have  not  been  the  terrible  experiences  seen  in 
some  of  the  groups.  There  has  been  lacking  also 
the  wonderful  rush  of  success  manifest  in  Hawaii, 


THE    PACIFIC  223 

Tahiti,  and  Fiji.  The  general  condition  of  the 
islands,  however,  according  to  travelers,  bears 
eloquent  witness  to  the  work  of  the  missions. 
In  this  connection  special  reference  should  be 
made  to  the  Marquesas  mission  in  Polynesia, 
carried  on  solely  by  the  Hawaiian  churches.  Its 
origin  was  the  visit  to  Hawaii,  in  1853,  of  a 
Marquesan  chief,  for  the  special  purpose  of  se- 
curing a  missionary.  No  American  was  able  to 
go,  but  a  company  of  Hawaiian  preachers  was 
sent,  and  a  work  inaugurated  which  has  developed 
successfully.  The  sending  of  the  missionaries 
was  an  occasion  of  great  interest,  and  the  conduct 
of  the  mission  has  been  an  important  element  in 
Hawaiian  Christian  growth. 

Methods  of  Work.— These  have  been  very 
imiform.  The  attention  of  the  people  has  been 
drawn  and  their  confidence  secured  in  many 
ways,  most  of  them  very  simple.  The  printing- 
press,  first  as  a  piece  of  mechanism,  has  in  many 
instances  been  a  means  of  Christian  influence. 
The  devices  and  comforts  of  Western  civilization 
have  played  their  part,  medicine  has  been  a  great 
help,  but  probably  more  than  any  or  all  put  to- 
gether has  been  the  personal  influence  of  the  mis- 
sionaries. Then  came  the  education,  slow  and 
difficult,  first  of  the  missionary  himself  in  the 
language,  that  he  might  give  the  Bible,  then  of 
the  people  that  they  might  understand  the  truth. 
In  this  the  cumulative  power  of  the  different 
missions  has  been  very  manifest.  The  conver- 
sion of  one  group  furnished  the  means  for  enter- 
ing others.  Nowhere  has  the  value  of  the  natives 
themselves  as  evangelizers  been  more  manifest, 
or  the  results  more  out  of  proportion  to  the  for- 
eigners engaged  in  the  work,  except  perhaps  in 
the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

Foreign  Influence.  — Perhaps  the  most  diffi- 


2  24  DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    FIELD 

cult  influence  that  missions  have  met  in  the  Pa- 
cific, next  to  the  innate  savagery  of  the  people, 
and  in  the  later  development  even  more  than  that, 
has  been  the  influence  of  foreigners.  Not  a  Httle 
of  the  ferocity  shown  to  missionaries  has  been 
traced  directly  to  wrongs  committed  by  sailors, 
chiefly  English  and  American,  while  much  of  the 
disease  that  has  been  so  destructive  has  been 
the  result  of  imported  vice.  There  has  been  also 
the  harmful  influence  of  foreign  rule.  Wherever 
Spanish  rule  has  gone,  Protestant  missions  have 
suffered ;  French  rule  has  also  been  hostile  in  the 
main ;  German  rule  has  been  usually  unsym- 
pathetic, at  least ;  and  even  English  rule  has  not 
always  been  as  favorable  as  could  be  wished. 
The  high-handed  proceedings  of  Spain  in  the 
Caroline  Islands,  driving  the  missionaries  from 
their  stations  and  even  forbidding  intercourse 
between  them  and  the  native  Christian  commu- 
nities, have  aroused  great  indignation,  and  neces- 
sitated governmental  action.  French  action  in 
Tahiti  has  been  referred  to.  The  German  occu- 
pation of  the  Marshall  Islands  was  attended  with 
a  serious  hampering  of  mission  work,  although 
this  afterward  disappeared,  and  the  English 
governor  of  the  Gilbert  Islands  has  allowed 
much  license  of  native  evil  which  the  missionaries 
had  succeeded  to  a  good  degree  in  suppressing. 
In  most  cases,  except  those  of  Spanish  rule,  this 
has  probably  been  due  to  the  prevalent  miscon- 
ception of  officials  in  regard  to  mission  work, 
occasioned  often  by  the  misrepresentations  of 
men  who  find  the  influence  of  the  missionaries  a 
bar  to  the  success  of  their  own  plans.  Patience 
and  tact  have  usually  brought  the  officials  to  a  bet- 
ter feeling,  and  of  late  years  there  has  been  mani- 
fest in  many  instances  a  change  for  the  better. 


PART  III 

ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 
OF  MISSION  WORK 


THE    OBJECT    AND    MOTIVE    OF    MISSIONS 

For  nineteen  centuries  a  certain  number  of 
the  disciples  of  Christ  have  been  engaged  in  a 
specific  work  called  the  work  of  missions.  They 
have  been  so  engaged  in  various  capacities:  as 
individuals,  simply  carrying  out  the  impulse  of 
their  own  hearts  and  guiding  their  own  action, 
subject  to  no  authority  other  than  that  of  their 
own  consciences,  interpreting  the  commands  of 
Christ  and  the  instruction  of  the  Holy  Spirit; 
as  members  of  organizations,  obedient  to  some 
authority  mediate  between  them  and  the  Master 
whom  all  serve  ;  as  constituent  members  of  Chris- 
tian communities,  combining  the  individual  with 
the  representative,  largely  independent  in  action 
as  well  as  guided  by  the  sense  of  personal  duty, 
yet  remembering  that  in  an  important  sense  they 
are  doing  not  merely  their  own  work,  but  the 
work  of  others  delegated  to  them.  They  have 
been  called  missionaries,  and  have  been  recog- 
nized as  holding  a  distinct  position  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  with  a  specific  duty,  more  or  less 
clearly  defined.  Sometimes  this  duty  has  called 
them  to  lands  distant  from  their  own ;  in  that 
case  they  have  been  called  foreign  missionaries ; 
sometimes  to  sections  of  their  own  land,  and  thus 
called  home  missionaries,  city  missionaries,  and 
the  hke.  In  every  case  their  work  has  been  as- 
227 


2  28  ORGANIZATION   AND   METHODS 

sumed  to  be  different  in  a  greater  or  less  degree 
from  that  of  the  pastor,  teacher,  officer,  or  mem- 
ber of  the  ordinary  church. 

Diversity  of  View.  —  What  is  it  that  these  mis- 
sionaries have  sought  and  are  seeking  to  do,  and 
what  is  the  moti\-e  tiiat  has  actuated  them  and  those 
who  have  supported  and  encouraged  tliem  in  their 
work?  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  if  one  were  to  ex- 
amine the  constitutions  of  missionary  societies  he 
would  find  a  considerable  diversity  of  opinion,  or 
at  least  of  statement,  on  this  very  point.  So,  too, 
if  he  looks  over  the  history  of  missions,  he  will 
find  that  the  most  effective  and  permanent  work 
has  not  been  done  by  those  who  have  been  most 
exphcit  in  their  exposition  of  just  what  it  was 
that  they  sought  to  accomplish,  at  least  immedi- 
ately. It  must  not,  therefore,  be  judged  that  the 
work  has  been  at  any  time  vague  or  uncertain,  as 
will  appear  from  a  glance  over  the  field. 

Loyalty  to  Christ.— When  the  disciples,  after 
Pentecost,  went  forth  to  obey  the  command  of 
Christ,  their  motive  appears  to  have  been  chiefly 
one  of  personal  loyalty  to  the  Saviour.  They 
were  witnesses  for  Christ.  But  witnesses  for 
what?  What  was  the  immediate  object  to  be 
gained  by  their  witnessing?  The  enthroning  of 
Christ  in  the  hearts  of  men  as  the  Lord  and  Sav- 
iour. He  had  been  despised  and  rejected,  cru- 
cified with  scorn  and  derision.  They  were  anxious 
that  He  should  be  enthroned,  and  they  went 
everywhere  preaching  the  Word,  the  Word  that 
was  God,  but  God  manifest  in  the  flesh.  There 
was  also  a  recognition  of  the  advantage  and  bless- 
ing to  those  who  accepted  Him  as  their  personal 
Saviour,  but  at  first  it  was  the  honor  of  that  Sav- 
iour, rather  than  the  salvation  of  the  men,  that 
was  uppermost  in  their  thought. 


THE  OBJECT  AND   MOTIVE  OF   MISSIONS    229 

Development  of  Character.— As  the  work 
continued,  however,  the  leaders  came  to  reah'ze 
more  keenly  that  the  honor  of  Christ  was  involved 
to  a  very  great  degree  in  the  character  of  the 
men  who  professed  His  name.  They  were  to 
be  "  epistles  known  and  read  of  all  men,"  and  it 
was  inevitable  that  the  Saviour  would  be  judged 
in  the  various  communities,  Jewish  or  pagan, 
by  the  standard  set  by  the  Christians  themselves. 
Thus  it  became  essential  that  there  should  be 
some  instruction,  and  on  occasion  warning  and 
even  discipline.  It  was  no  honor  to  the  Mas- 
ter to  have  His  name  borne  by  communities 
that  practised  some  of  the  worst  vices  of  hea- 
thenism. To  this  was  added  an  increasing  sense 
of  the  object  of  Christ's  mission  to  earth  in  re- 
gard to  the  development  of  the  individual  soul. 
The  possibilities  of  individual  growth  into  like- 
ness to  Christ  came  to  hold  a  larger  place  in  the 
thought.  There  resulted  thus,  in  a  degree,  a 
diminution  in  or,  perhaps  better,  a  blurring  of 
the  intensity  of  the  desire  for  the  glory  of  Christ, 
and  an  increase  of  the  interest  in  man.  This  be- 
came more  evident  as  the  circle  of  those  who 
knew  the  Saviour  in  the  flesh  diminished  in 
numbers.  The  risen  Saviour,  out  of  sight,  was 
to  a  degree  replaced  by  the  needy  ones  in  sight. 
With  the  extension  of  missionary  labor  over  the 
Roman  empire  there  came  also  an  increasing 
realization  of  the  multitudes  who  were  without 
God  and  without  hope.  The  element  of  human 
sympathy,  purified  and  ennobled  by  the  sympathy 
of  Christ,  became  more  and  more  powerful,  and 
the  salvation  of  men  assumed  a  foremost  place 
in  the  motive  and  object  of  missionary  labor. 

Ambition  for  the  Church.— With  the  devel- 
opment of  the  organized  Christian  Church,  the  offi- 


230  ORGANIZATION  AND   METHODS 

cial  declaration  of  Christianity  as  the  religion  of  the 
Roman  empire  and  of  the  world,  and  the  centrali- 
zation of  power  in  church  leaders,  the  pope  at 
Rome,  the  patriarchs  of  the  East,  there  became 
evident  still  another  element  in  missionary  work. 
As  the  honor  of  Christ  had  been  recognized  by  the 
earlier  disciples  to  be  involved  in  the  personal  char- 
acter of  those  who  confessed  Him,  so  to  the  later 
fathers  and  the  medieval  ecclesiastics  it  carried 
with  it  the  enlargement  of  the  Church  and  the  de- 
feat of  all  opposition.  The  watchword  was  "  the 
Church,"  and  while  individual  conversion  was 
sought  as  before,  and  baptisms  were  still  in  the 
name  of  Christ,  the  dominant  idea  came  to  be 
the  enlargement,  solidification,  and  glorification  of 
the  "  body  of  Christ,"  the  Church.  With  this  de- 
veloped, also,  the  desire  for  overcoming  the  great 
systems  of  heathenism  as  systems.  Thus  there 
was  a  distinct  missionary  element  in  the  crusades. 
Islam  was  to  yield  to  Christianity.  Individual 
Moslems  were  lost  sight  of  in  the  effort  to  over- 
throw the  system. 

Conquering  Christianity.— This  idea,  how- 
ever, probably  filled  the  thought  of  the  Church 
at  home  rather  than  the  individual  workers ;  and 
yet  when  Raymond  Lull  made  his  repeated  at- 
tempts to  enter  North  Africa,  the  constant  thought 
of  his  argument  with  the  Moslem  priests  was, 
Islam  is  false  and  must  die.  His  devotion, 
pure  character,  and  earnestness  won  some  con- 
verts, but  the  great  central  purpose  was  the 
overthrow  of  the  false  faith  and  the  establish- 
ment of  Christianity  as  the  conquering  religion 
of  the  world.  So  also  Francis  of  Assisi,  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux,  and  other  founders  of  monastic 
orders  emphasized  in  the  constitution  of  those 
orders  the  duty  of  missions,  but  in  practice  the 


THE  OBJECT  AND   MOTIVE   OF   MISSIONS     23 1 

Franciscans,  Cistercians,  and  Knights  Templars 
were  decidedly  militant  missionaries.  Filled 
originally  with  the  thought  of  "  the  world  for 
Christ,"  they  came  to  interpret  it  "the  world  for 
the  Church."  Perhaps  the  most  significant  illus- 
trations, however,  were  Loyola  and  Xavier. 
There  is  something  superhuman  in  the  energy 
and  devotion  of  those  men  and  the  followers  who 
caught  their  enthusiasm.  The  crowds  who  in 
India  looked  upon  Xavier  almost  as  Christ  Him- 
self were  in  turn  looked  upon  rather  as  witnesses 
to  the  power  of  the  Church  than  as  individuals  to 
be  saved. 

The  early  Protestant  missions  were  largely  in  re- 
sponse to  a  sense  of  duty  to  those  in  degradation 
and  sin.  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  was  impressed 
with  the  need  of  the  Danish  West  Indies.  Count 
Zinzendorf  and  the  Moravians  were  influenced 
by  the  sufferings  of  the  negroes  of  St.  Thomas. 
The  Huguenots  who  went  to  Brazil  (1555)  had 
for  their  primary  object  a  refuge  similar  to  that 
the  Pilgrims  sought  in  New  England,  but  were 
glad  to  preach  to  the  natives  the  same  faith 
that  filled  their  hearts.  With  Carey  the  greater 
object  came  to  the  front.  Like  Xavier,  he  was 
filled  with  an  enthusiasm  for  the  conversion  of 
the  world.  His  thought,  however,  seems  to 
have  been  directed  primarily  to  the  duty  of  the 
Church  to  obey  the  divine  command,  and  he 
went  forth  with  no  very  clear  conception  as 
to  just  what  it  was  that  he  was  to  accomplish. 
The  same  was  true  of  most,  if  not  all,  the  pio- 
neers of  modern  missions.  There  were  the 
"marching  orders"  of  the  Church.  They  had 
not  been  obeyed.  They  must  be  obeyed.  As  to 
what  was  involved  in  them  they  knew  Htde,  but 
this  troubled  them  not  at  all.     They  were  to 


232  ORGANIZATION  AND   METHODS 

preach  the  gospel,  disciple  the  nations.  That 
was  enough.  The  same  thought  filled  those  who, 
unable  to  go  themselves,  volunteered  to  stand  by 
those  who  did,  and  see  that  they  had  the  means 
necessary  to  enable  them  to  preach  and  to  dis- 
ciple. 

With  the  actual  commencement  of  this  work, 
however,  and  still  more  with  its  development,  the 
missionaries  came  to  realize  that  the  general 
command  involved  many  particulars,  and  these 
particulars,  in  varying  degree,  according  to  time 
and  place,  assumed  the  character  of  definite  ob- 
jects to  be  attained.  To  set  these  forth  in  regular 
order  is  impossible,  and  yet  there  is  a  certain 
development  very  manifest. 

The  Saving  of  Men.— Unquestionably  the 
first  is  the  conversion  of  individual  souls.  No  one 
who  has  never  seen  it  can  fully  appreciate  the  im- 
pression made  by  the  sight  of  a  vast  multitude  of 
human  beings  ignorant  of  the  way  of  life.  There  is 
something  oppressive  in  the  sight  of  a  great  crowd, 
and  when  to  that  is  added  the  realization  of  their 
ignorance  of  life  and  their  thraldom  under  sin,  the 
oppression  becomes  almost  unendurable.  The 
"passion  for  souls"  begotten  by  this  impression  is 
one  of  the  most  marked  features  of  missionary  life. 
The  one  supreme  object  comes  to  be  the  saving  of 
men.  It  crowds  out  even  the  command.  Then 
comes  another  stage.  The  man  once  brought  to 
the  light  reveals  the  possibilities  of  his  nature, 
and  the  desire  to  save  him  from  spiritual  death 
is  supplemented  by  the  desire  to  develop  in  him 
the  full  spiritual  life.  The  missionary  realizes 
what  that  man  may  be  in  his  own  character,  and 
is  filled  with  a  longing  that,  not  only  for  the  good 
of  the  man  himself,  but  for  the  glory  of  the 
Creator  Christ,  he  may  in  truth  attain  to  the 


THE   OBJECT  AND   MOTIVE  OF   MISSIONS     233 

Stature  of  the  perfect  man  in  Christ  Jesus.  Edu- 
cation becomes  necessary  to  complete  the  work 
of  conversion. 

Education  of  a  Native  Ministry.— This 

same  education  assumes  added  importance  from 
other  facts.  One  of  the  first  resuUs  of  the  reaHzation 
by  the  missionary  of  the  need  of  the  heathen  world 
is  apt  to  be  a  sense  of  his  utter  weakness  and  insuf- 
ficiency. There  are  so  many  to  be  reached,  and  at 
the  best  the  missionaries  are  so  few  and  in  some  re- 
spects so  incompetent.  Then  comes  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  necessity  of  a  native  ministry  (including 
in  the  term  not  merely  ordained  men,  but  helpers, 
teachers,  any  and  all  who  can  assist  in  the  carry- 
ing on  of  the  work).  While  not  neglecting  the 
work  of  conversion,  this  work  of  training  those 
who  may  assist  and  perhaps  lead  in  the  work  of 
conversion  becomes  an  object  in  itself,  scarcely, 
if  at  all,  inferior  to  the  other. 

With  the  development  of  Christian  communi- 
ties come  other  objects.  Believers  need  to  be — 
must  be — associated  in  some  form  of  church  life. 
With  Protestant  emphasis  on  individual  Chris- 
tianity, in  marked  contrast  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
idea  of  corporate  Christianity,  the  earlier  mission- 
aries paid  Httle  attention  to  church  organization 
until  it  was  forced  upon  them  by  the  necessities 
of  the  situation.  They  gathered  the  behevers 
together  for  the  ordinances  of  the  Church,  but  the 
Church  itself,  as  an  immediate  thing  to  be  planned 
for  and  developed,  was  with  most  a  somewhat 
later  conception. 

Formation  of  a  Native  Church.— It  was 
not  long,  however,  before  it  came  to  assume  a  great 
importance  in  the  minds  of  some,  not  so  much  in 
its  ecclesiastical  character  as  because  it  furnished 
to  the  surrounding  communities  an  object-lesson 


234      ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

in  the  permanent  quality  of  the  new  faith  and, 
still  more,  served  as  an  exponent  of  that  faith. 
As  this  conception  of  it  gained  ground,  empha- 
sis was  laid  more  and  more  upon  the  training 
of  the  Church,  its  laity  and  children  as  well  as  its 
ministry.  Whereas  education,  as  noted  above, 
of  the  individual  and  of  the  ministry,  was  dis- 
tinctly reHgious,  it  now  became  apparent  that  for 
the  community  it  must  be  also  secular.  Church- 
members  were  also  members  of  the  social  and 
civil  community  and  had  social  and  civil  duties. 
Those  about  them  performed  their  duties  in  those 
lines  in  accordance  with  their  heathen  or,  at  the 
best,  non-Christian  training  and  ideas.  If  Chris- 
tian men  and  women  were  to  conduct  themselves 
on  Christian  principles,  they  must  be  taught  both 
what  those  principles  were  and  how  to  apply  them 
in  practical  life.  Thus  one  great  object  of  mis- 
sionary work  came  to  be  the  education  of  children 
and  the  helping  of  older  persons  to  lit  them  for 
Christian  life  in  the  midst  of  heathenizing  influ- 
ences. 

Civilizing  Influences.— Parallel  with  these 
another  set  of  objects  came  into  prominence.  There 
is  a  great  deal  of  truth  in  the  phrase,  "the  gospel  of  a 
clean  shirt."  Under  the  contaminating  influences 
of  surrounding  degradation,  vice,  and  poverty,  it 
was  difficult,  even  with  the  best  of  training,  for  con- 
verts to  lead  a  successful  Christian  life.  It  became, 
therefore,  of  importance  to  remove  so  far  as  possi- 
ble the  hindrances  by  substituting  better  methods 
of  life,  showing  the  virtues  of  cleanhness,  illus- 
trating the  value  of  improved  industrial  appli- 
ances, demonstrating  the  evil  results  of  many 
customs,  introducing  the  use  of  better  dress,  house 
comforts,  etc.  Not  infrequently  the  converts 
were  cut  off  from  their  ordinary  means  of  support. 


THE  OBJECT  AND   MOTIVE   OF    MISSIONS     235 

An  excommunicated  Armenian,  an  outcaste  Brah- 
man, came  perilously  near  starving  ;  some  means 
of  providing  subsistence  must  be  secured.  Al- 
most innumerable  cases  came  up  which  required 
immediate  attention,  as  essential  preliminaries 
not  merely  to  the  development  of  Christian  Hfe 
in  the  communities  and  individual  souls,  but  to 
the  widest  extension  of  the  work  of  evangeliza- 
tion. The  inevitable  result  was  that  in  the  older 
and  more  fully  organized  missions  a  considerable 
number  of  missionaries  came  to  be  engaged  in 
lines  of  work  not  merely  different  from,  but  ap- 
parently having  httle  connection  with,  the  "  dis- 
cipling  of  the  nations." 

HigherEducation.—Tonotafewthis  seemed 
all  wrong.  Instruction  in  reading  so  that  the  people 
might  be  able  to  understand  the  Bible  was  recog- 
nized as  legitimate,  but  what  had  the  study  of  alge- 
bra to  do  with  the  conversion  of  souls?  Higher 
education,  the  introduction  of  industrial  appHances, 
were  all  very  well,  but  not  within  the  province  of  the 
missionary.  He  was  to  preach  the  gospel.  With 
this  came  another  thought.  These  departments 
of  mission  work  were  expensive.  They  required 
the  erection  of  buildings,  the  purchase  of  appa- 
ratus, and  also  so  engrossed  the  time  and  strength 
of  the  missionaries  as  to  hinder  to  a  considerable 
degree  the  work  of  preaching  in  the  remoter  sec- 
tions of  missionary  lands.  The  great  societies, 
too,  had,  as  was  inevitable,  their  rules  and  regu- 
lations, some  of  them  irksome  to  the  independent 
ideas  especially  of  Americans. 

Impatience  for  Results.— The  increasing 
knowledge  of  the  heathen  world  brought  also  an 
increasing  realization  of  the  tremendous  work  to 
be  done  and  a  certain  impatiencewith  what  seemed 
to  many  the  slow  methods  in  vogue.     Repeated 


236  ORGANIZATION  AND   METHODS 

charges  were  made  by  those  unfriendly  to  missions 
that  they  were  accompHshing  very  httle  and  that 
heathenism  was  really  growing  faster  than  Chris- 
tianity. The  growth  of  organization  in  missionary 
societies  seemed  to  some  to  make  too  much  of  a 
business  of  converting  the  world,  and  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  work  on  the  field  seemed  to  others  far  re- 
moved from  the  simplicity  of  what  they  conceived 
to  be  the  true  methods,  involving  greater  depen- 
dence upon  God  for  support  and  less  use  of  special 
efforts  for  securing  donations.  The  development 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  premillennial  coming  of 
Christ,  as  it  came  to  assume  more  prominence, 
carried  with  it  the  claim  that  there  must  first  be 
a  heralding  of  the  gospel  over  the  whole  earth, 
and  then  He  would  come.  With  some  this 
seemed  to  be  carried  almost  to  the  extreme  of 
caring  comparatively  little  for  conversion  of  souls, 
still  less  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  Church.  Every 
effort  was  to  be  directed  to  the  proclamation  of 
the  Word,  so  that  all,  of  whatever  race  or  land, 
might  have  the  opportunity  given  them  of  ac- 
cepting the  gospel.  More  than  that  was  not  to 
be  expected. 

Simple  Evangelization. — Under  these  vari- 
ous influences  there  grew  up  a  few  large  societies — 
the  China  Inland  Mission,  the  International  Mis- 
sionary Alhance,  the  East  London  Institute,  being 
the  most  important — and  a  great  number  of  in- 
dividual enterprises.  These  are  described  else- 
where. It  is  sufficient  here  to  state  that  all  empha- 
size generally  the  work  of  evangelization,  and 
especially  the  preaching  of  the  gospel.  They  also 
make  financial  support,  whether  of  missionaries 
or  helpers,  a  secondary  matter,  guaranteeing  no 
regular  salary,  simply  agreeing  to  send  whatever 
funds  come  in,  to  be  divided  on  some  equitable 


THE  OBJECT   AND   MOTIVE  OF  MISSIONS     237 

basis.  The  great  point  with  all,  however,  is  to 
press  forward  the  work  of  preaching  the  gospel, 
so  that  the  whole  world  may  hear  as  speedily  as 
possible.  Largely  under  this  influence  there  has 
arisen  a  wide-spread  feeling  that  the  work  of  mis- 
sions will  be  hastened  if  a  specified  time  is  set  in 
which  the  heralding  is  to  be  accomphshed.  The 
present  century,  the  present  generation,  are  set 
forth  as  fit  limits,  and  considerable  emphasis  has 
been  laid  in  late  years  upon  the  sending  out  of  an 
immense  corps  of  laborers  in  order  to  accomplish 
this  end.  Where,  however,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Student  Volunteers,  the  phrase  "  the  evangeliza- 
tion of  the  world  in  the  present  generation"  is 
used,  it  should  be  understood  as  a  watch- cry  rather 
than  as  a  prophecy,  the  idea  being  to  furnish  an 
incentive,  not  to  suggest  a  limitation. 

ProminentFactors.—Thisisnotthe  place  for 
a  consideration  of  the  relative  merits  of  these  differ- 
ent aims  or  objects,  but  simply  to  set  them  forth.  It 
should  be  said,  also,  that  each  one  is  held  promi- 
nently by  workers  in  every  part  of  the  field,  and  all 
have  their  influence  upon  the  great  work.  Personal 
love  for  Christ,  carrying  with  it  the  necessity  of 
obeying  His  last  command  ;  a  passion  for  souls  in 
theirlost  and  needy  condition  ;  a  realization  of  what 
it  means  for  any  soul  to  be  born  into  the  king- 
dom of  God  and  have  the  life  of  Christ  developed 
within  him ;  a  sense  of  the  truth  and  power  of 
the  gospel  of  Christ  and  the  falsity  and  worth- 
lessness  of  all  non-Christian  systems  of  religion; 
a  belief  in  the  Church  as  God's  instrument  for  the 
establishment  of  His  kingdom  on  earth  ;  through 
all  a  realization  of  the  presence  of  the  Master, 
now  unseen,  but  at  some  time — it  may  be,  not 
long  hence— to  be  seen;  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
strengthening,  helping,   guiding   those   who   are 


238  ORGANIZATION  AND   METHODS 

doing  His  work  upon  the  earth— all  these,  in  vary- 
ing degree  according  to  individual  character,  are 
prominent  as  the  motive  and  object  of  missionary 
work,  whether  on  the  foreign  field  or  at  home, 
and  no  one  can  understand  the  power  of  that 
work  who  does  not  take  them  all  into  account. 


II 

ORGANIZATION    OF    MISSION    WORK 

There  was  little  or  no  organization  in  the 
early  work  of  missions.  Individuals  went  where 
they  pleased,  worked  as  they  pleased,  and  were 
supported  in  different  ways— some  by  the  labor 
of  their  own  hands,  some  by  the  gifts  of  the  peo- 
ple to  whom  they  went,  some  by  the  churches  or 
communities  that  sent  them.  It  does  not  follow 
that  the  work  was  haphazard ;  it  was  not,  but 
was  characterized  by  careful  consideration  on 
the  part  of  those  competent  to  judge.  It  was, 
however,  to  a  very  great  degree  a  free  work. 
The  world  was  wide ;  the  laborers  were  few ; 
there  was  great  opportunity,  and  little  chance  for 
friction.  Missionaries,  too,  being  workers  among 
a  people  of  much  the  same  manner  of  life,  the 
distinctions  inevitable  to-day  were  absolutely  un- 
known then. 

As  the  Church  became  better  organized  itself, 
it  followed  naturally  that  it  should  take  up  its 
aggressive  work  in  a  somewhat  more  systematic 
way.  From  the  centers  of  Christian  life  the 
bishops  and  popes  looked  out  over  the  world, 
saw  the  need  of  communities  or  openings  for 
work,  and  there  followed  the  selection  and  com- 
mission of  workers.  Still  there  was  little  that 
could  be  called  organized  work.  Enthusiastic 
239 


240  ORGANIZATION   AND   METHODS 

preachers  went  forth  from  the  missionary  schools 
of  the  earher  centuries  and  from  the  monasteries 
of  the  middle  ages,  but  their  efforts  were,  after 
all,  chiefly  individual,  a  sort  of  proselytizing  cru- 
sade rather  than  regularly  planned  work.  As 
the  monastic  orders  grew  in  strength  they  sys- 
tematized their  foreign  labors  more  and  more, 
and  the  founders  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
on  this  continent,  as  well  as  the  great  missionary 
Francis  Xavier,  went  out  under  definite  instruc- 
tions and  with  regular  plans. 

First  Protestant  Societies.— The  early 
Protestant  endeavors  were  of  much  the  same 
nature,  owing  their  origin  to  the  personal  activity 
of  Gustavus  Vasa  (1559),  Frederick  IV.  of  Den- 
mark (1705),  Count  Zinzendorf  (1732).  The 
first  regular  missionary  organization,  as  we  now 
use  the  term,  was  the  New  England  Company, 
estabhshed  by  special  act  of  Parliament  (1649) 
for  the  purpose  of  propagating  the  gospel  in  New 
England.  The  immediate  business  of  the  com- 
pany was  to  collect  funds,  send  out  missionaries, 
purchase  for  their  use  such  goods  as  might  be 
necessary,  and  hold  any  property  that  might  be 
acquired.  This  was  followed  by  the  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge  (1698) 
and  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gos- 
pel (1701).  Then  came  the  effort  of  Frederick 
IV.  of  Denmark  to  start  missions  in  the  East 
Indies  by  sending  Ziegenbalg  to  Tranquebar 
(1705),  and  the  starting  of  Dober  and  Nitsch- 
mann  for  St.  Thomas  under  the  auspices  of 
Count  Zinzendorf  and  the  Moravians  (1731). 
These  were,  however,  scarcely  organizations  for 
missionary  work  in  the  same  sense  as  are  the 
boards  and  societies  of  the  present  day.  The  New 
England  Company  and  the  Societies  for  Pro- 


ORGANIZATION  OF  MISSION  WORK         24 1 

moting  Christian  Knowledge  and  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  were  designed  even  more 
for  the  betterment  of  the  conditions  in  the  Eng- 
lish colonies  than  for  the  conversion  of  the 
heathen  as  such.  They  were  formed  in  response 
to  a  sense  of  the  need  of  communities  rather  than 
the  need  ot  souls.  It  was  a  similar  thought  that 
guided  the  Danish  king.  Count  Zinzendorf  and 
the  Moravians  were  evangelists  with  no  thought 
of  pohtical  advancement,  and  yet  it  was  a  spe- 
cific need  that  roused  their  action — action,  too, 
which  was  of  very  different  character  from  that 
of  the  men  who  stood  behind  Carey  and  those 
who  followed  him,  for  there  was  really  no  more 
than  permission  and  encouragement  given  to  the 
new  missionaries.  The  total  amount  given  them 
in  cash  was  two  and  a  half  dollars  apiece,  and 
there  seems  to  have  been  no  assurance  of  contin- 
ued support. 

The  modern  conception  of  a  missionary  soci- 
ety— an  association  of  persons,  voluntary  or  rep- 
resenting an  ecclesiastical  body,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  general  missionary  enterprise — appears 
to  have  originated  with  the  company  of  Baptist 
ministers  who,  in  1792,  pledged  themselves  to 
the  support  of  Carey  as  he  started  out  on  his 
work.  Their  organization  was  very  simple  and 
was  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the 
funds  necessary  to  defray  the  cost  of  traveling 
and  of  living  on  the  field.  The  resolutions 
adopted  expressed  the  general  purpose  of  the 
society  to  be  the  "  propagation  of  the  gospel 
among  the  heathen,"  and  the  immediate  purpose 
the  collection  of  subscriptions  to  meet  the  ex- 
pense. The  membership  of  the  society  included 
persons  contributing  ^10  ($50)  at  one  time  or 
I  OS.  dd.  ($2.62)  annually.     The  thirteen  ministers 


242  ORGANIZATION  AND   METHODS 

present  subscribed  ;£"i3  2s.  6d.  ($65.62),  a  sec- 
retary was  chosen,  and  the  organization  com- 
pleted. 

Characteristics  of  Protestant  Societies. 

— The  Baptist  Missionary  Society  was  followed 
in  rapid  succession  by  the  London  Missionary 
Society,  the  Scotch  societies,  the  Church  Mission- 
ary Society,  and  the  Dutch,  Scandinavian,  and 
German  societies.  The  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel  caught  the  idea  and  changed 
its  character,  becoming  far  more  than  before  a 
distinctly  missionary  society.  The  chief  charac- 
teristic of  the  new  organizations  was  at  the  be- 
ginning, and  has  been  ever  since,  an  effort  to 
enlist  the  sympathies  of  the  entire  Church  and  so 
thoroughly  to  systematize  the  work  of  these  or- 
ganizations as  to  secure  the  greatest  efficiency 
with  the  least  amount  of  expenditure  of  time, 
strength,  and  money.  The  missionary  enterprises 
of  the  middle  ages  and  of  the  immediately  post- 
Reformation  period  had  been  the  creations  of 
impulse  chiefly.  There  was  an  overwhelming 
sense  of  the  need,  and  missionaries  were  launched 
forth  into  the  great  mass  of  heathenism  without 
much  plan.  The  great  work  of  the  Roman 
CathoHc  Church  was  systematized,  but  it  was 
the  system  of  an  autocracy.  It  was  bold,  took 
no  account  of  danger  or  privation,  advanced 
heedless  of  obstacles ;  but  it  was  the  advance  of 
an  army  under  definite  orders  from  a  special 
head.  The  Church  at  large  knew  practically 
nothing  of  it  and  had  no  share  in  it.  So,  also, 
with  regard  to  the  cost  of  the  work.  Xavier,  De 
Nobili,  the  pioneers  in  the  New  World,  were 
prodigal  in  many  ways.  The  Roman  CathoHc 
Church  has  never  published  accounts  very  fully, 
and  has  had  no  need  to  under  its  organization 


ORGANIZATION    OF   MISSION   WORK  243 

and  centralized  authority.  Under  the  new  sys- 
tem the  subscribers,  having  given  of  their  money, 
felt  a  direct  interest  in  its  expenditure.  They 
were  by  no  means  disposed  to  carp  or  criticize. 
They  simply  exerted  a  pressure,  and  a  very 
wholesome  one,  upon  those  who  had  gone  to 
represent  them  on  the  field.  The  missionaries 
realized  that  they  were  in  a  sense  acting  for 
those  at  home,  and  had  a  responsibility  to  those 
who  furnished  the  means  for  their  support  and 
the  furtherance  of  the  work. 

Scope  of  the  Societies.— With  the  increas- 
ing interest  in  missions  and  the  extension  of  their 
work  it  became  necessary  to  enlarge  the  labors 
of  the  society  at  home.  Volunteers  for  mission- 
ary service  presented  themselves.  It  was  neither 
possible  nor  advisable  to  send  all  who  offered. 
There  must  be  some  selection.  Such  selection 
involved  accurate  knowledge  of  the  work  to  be 
done  and  an  adaptation  of  the  material  offered 
to  the  differing  needs  of  the  fields.  There  were 
also  questions  in  regard  to  the  extension  of  work, 
the  places  to  be  chosen  from  among  the  number 
presenting  themselves.  With  further  develop- 
ment came  the  necessity  of  arranging  some  lines 
of  missionary  policy.  After  making  all  due  al- 
lowance for  difference  of  circumstances,  it  was 
evident  that  there  must  be  a  general  uniformity 
of  method.  While  there  was  every  disposition  to 
allow  sufficient  scope  for  individual  enterprise, 
and  no  desire  to  lay  down  unbending  rules  of 
action,  it  was  clear  that  individual  missionaries 
could  not  be  allowed  unlimited  hcense  in  carry- 
ing out  any  new  ideas  that  might  occur  to  them 
as  advantageous.  There  was  also  a  great  desire 
to  know  what  methods  had  received  the  indorse- 
ment of  success.     Could  the  missionary  in  India 


244      ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

learn  anything  from  the  success  or  failure  of  his 
brother  in  China?  There  must  be  some  means 
found  for  taking  into  careful  consideration  the 
various  experiences  and  suggestions,  and  deduc- 
ing from  them  some  principles  that  should  be  of 
value  to  all  in  every  field.  Among  the  topics 
which  thus  came  up  were  the  formation  of  native 
churches ;  the  education  of  a  native  ministry  ; 
the  employment  of  paid  teachers  and  helpers ; 
the  extent  to  which  native  prejudice  and  super- 
stition should  be  regarded ;  the  location  of  mis- 
sionaries ;  salaries ;  furloughs  ;  the  proportion  of 
time  to  be  given  to  secular  education ;  and  so 
on  through  a  long  list  of  questions  which  come 
up  in  every  mission  enterprise. 

On  the  home  side  the  demands  grew  at  an  al- 
most equal  rate.  As  the  number  of  missions  and 
missionaries  increased  a  proportionate  increase 
in  the  funds  for  their  support  became  necessary. 
This  involved  systematic  application  to  the  con- 
tributing churches.  Those  who  gave  wanted  to 
know  what  was  done  with  their  money,  and  those 
who  had  friends  on  the  mission  field  were  anxious 
to  hear  of  their  welfare.  All  looked  to  the  mis- 
sionary society.  Without  going  more  into  detail, 
it  is  evident  that  the  present  organizations,  with 
their  apparently  large  force  of  secretaries,  clerks, 
members  of  committees,  etc.,  did  not  spring  into 
being  at  once,  but  were  the  natural  result  of  the 
effort  to  meet  the  demands  made  upon  those 
who  at  home  must  both  provide  for  and  in  a  de- 
gree direct  the  great  work  of  the  Church  in  for- 
eign lands. 

Form  of  Organization.— The  needs  being 
in  general  the  same,  it  was  to  be  expected  that 
the  form  of  organization  of  the  different  societies 
would  be  similar,  and  such  is  the  fact.     In  almost 


ORGANIZATION   OF  MISSION  WORK  245 

every  case  the  actual  work  is  done  by  a  board 
consisting  of  gentlemen  who  give  their  services 
free  of  charge  and  meet  at  regular  intervals  for 
the  transaction  of  the  affairs  of  the  society,  and  by 
executive  officers,  including  secretaries  and  trea- 
surers, who  receive  salaries  and  give  their  whole 
time  to  the  detail  work.  There  are  a  few  soci- 
eties, employing  a  comparatively  small  number  of 
missionaries,  whose  executive  officers  receive  no 
pay,  carrying  on  the  work  in  connection  with 
other  duties.  There  are  also  two  of  considerable 
prominence  in  which  these  expenditures  are  re- 
duced to  a  minimum,  the  China  Inland  Mission 
and  the  International  Missionary  AUiance.  In 
the  case  of  both,  however,  the  duties  of  the  home 
representatives  are  greatly  simphfied  by  the 
method  of  conducting  the  work  on  the  field. 
There  is  very  little  attention  paid  to  education, 
literature,  or  to  the  development  of  Christian 
communities  as  such.  They  are  almost  entirely 
evangelistic  in  their  character,  and  the  actual 
conduct  of  the  work  on  the  field  is  practically  in 
the  hands  of  the  missionaries  themselves.  In 
the  case  of  the  China  Inland  Mission  a  certain 
authority  is  vested  in  the  senior  missionaries,  and 
practically  the  general  superintendent,  the  Rev. 
J.  Hudson  Taylor,  is  autocrat.  In  the  case  of 
the  International  Missionary  AUiance  the  work 
of  the  missions  is  under  the  direction  of  persons 
connected  with  another  distinct  though  cognate 
enterprise  from  which  they  derive  their  support. 
In  each  case  the  society  depends  very  much  upon 
the  personality  of  the  man  to  whom  it  owes  its 
organization.  Whether  there  is  force  enough  in 
the  fundamental  idea  to  continue  the  present  sys- 
tem should  these  men  be  removed,  or  whether 
they  would  gradually  develop  the  same  general 


246      ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

features  as  the  other  societies,  is  a  question  that 
future  history  alone  can  determine. 

Into  the  detailed  description  of  the  workings 
of  the  societies  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter  here. 
Scarcely  any  two  arrange  those  details  in  the 
same  way,  each  being  guided  by  the  distinctive 
circumstances  of  its  size,  its  relation  to  the 
churches  that  support  it,  etc.  As  has  already 
been  intimated,  their  duties  are  twofold,  referring 
to  the  work  at  home  and  on  the  field.  At  home 
they  select  and  commission  missionaries,  raise 
funds,  report  to  the  churches,  conduct  any  busi- 
ness with  the  government  that  may  be  entailed 
by  the  foreign  residence  of  the  missionaries.  For 
the  field  they  direct  the  policy  of  the  missions, 
in  no  autocratic  way,  however,  guide  in  general 
the  movements  and  occupations  of  the  mission- 
aries, and,  what  is  perhaps  the  most  important 
and  most  difficult  duty  of  all,  apportion  among 
the  different  missions  and  stations  the  funds  fur- 
nished by  the  churches  at  home.  The  fact  that 
these  funds  frequently  amount  to  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  dollars,  and  are  to  be  distributed 
among  scores  of  mission  stations  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  to  be  applied  to  an  almost  innumer- 
able variety  of  objects,  gives  an  impressive  illus- 
tration of  the  development  of  the  missionary 
work ;  and  the  ability  and  devotion  of  those  in- 
trusted with  its  conduct  are  made  manifest  on 
a  minute  examination  of  the  results  secured. 

English  Societies.  — Parallel  with  what  we 
may  call  the  internal  organization  of  the  mission- 
ary societies  has  been  their  growth  in  connection 
with  the  churches.  Previous  to  Carey's  time 
there  had  been  no  missionary  enterprise  that 
appealed  to  the  entire  community  for  support, 
unless  we  except  that  of  the  Moravians.     The 


ORGANIZATION   OF   MISSION   WORK  247 

thirteen  Baptist  ministers  who  were  the  founders 
of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (1792)  natu- 
rally turned  to  their  own  denomination,  but  their 
influence  was  felt  by  the  other  nonconformists  as 
well  as  by  some  in  the  Church  of  England.  The 
history  of  the  formation  of  the  societies  that  fol- 
lowed has  already  been  detailed  in  the  first  part 
of  this  book.  It  is  sufficient  here  to  note  very 
briefly  the  development.  The  London  Mission- 
ary Society  (1795)  drew  its  earlier  support  from 
Presbyterians,  Congregationalists,  and  Episcopa- 
lians chiefly.  With  the  formation,  a  few  years 
later,  of  the  Presbyterian  societies  in  Scotland, 
and  (1799)  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
representing  the  more  liberal  element  in  the 
Church  of  England,  the  movement  toward  de- 
nominational work  became  manifest,  not,  however, 
so  much  in  the  way  of  rivalry  or  sectionalism 
as  because  it  was  felt  that  thus  could  the  full 
strength  of  the  Church  be  secured.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  the  China  Inland  Mission,  the  North 
Africa  Mission,  and  the  East  London  Institute 
are  the  only  prominent  undenominational  organi- 
zations in  England,  aside  from  the  Bible  and 
tract  societies. 

Continental  Societies.— On  the  Continent 
the  situation  was  quite  different.  The  German 
societies  were  and  are  supported  by  independent 
communities  rather  than  by  branches  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church,  and  their  organization  is  simply 
that  necessitated  by  the  exigencies  of  the  work 
of  directing  the  missions  and  securing  funds.  In 
Holland  most  of  the  smaller  societies  are  off- 
shoots from  the  Netherlands  Society,  occasioned 
chiefly  by  difference  of  doctrinal  views.  Those 
in  Denmark  and  Sweden  are  somewhat  similar  to 
those  in  Germany. 


248  ORGANIZATION  AND   METHODS 

American  Societies.— In  the  United  States 
the  first  movement,  that  resulting  in  the  Ameri- 
can Board,  was  distinctly  interdenominational, 
but  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  was 
soon  formed  on  denominational  hues.  For  some 
time  the  American  Board  continued  to  represent 
the  Congregational,  Reformed,  and  even  Pres- 
byterian bodies,  as  well  as  other  single  churches, 
but  eventually  the  feehng  grew  stronger  that  as 
long  as  denominations  exist  the  work  will  be  best 
carried  on  by  recognizing  the  fact  and  utihzing 
the  denominational  feeling,  so  that  to-day  there  is 
scarcely  a  denomination  of  any  size  or  influence 
that  is  not  represented  on  one  or  more  foreign 
mission  fields. 

Ecclesiastical  Relations.— It  has  resulted 
from  this  situation  that  the  different  societies 
differ  considerably  in  their  relation  to  the  churches 
that  support  them.  Some  are  purely  voluntary 
societies,  having  no  organic  relation  to  any  ec- 
clesiastical body,  getting  their  support  from  any 
who  may  be  interested  in  their  work.  Such  are 
the  great  Bible  and  tract  societies,  the  indepen- 
dent societies  in  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  and  most  of  the  continental  societies, 
e.g.,  the  International  Missionary  Alliance,  the 
China  Inland  Mission,  the  Basle,  Berlin,  and 
Hermannsburg  societies.  Others,  while  holding 
no  strictly  organic  relation  to  ecclesiastical 
bodies,  yet  look  to  them  for  indorsement  and 
rely  mainly  upon  their  churches  for  support,  e.g., 
the  American  Board,  the  Baptist  societies  in  this 
country  and  England,  the  London  Missionary 
Society.  A  somewhat  closer  relation  in  appear- 
ance, though  scarcely  in  reality,  is  that  held  by 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  and  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  to  the  Church 


ORGANIZATION   OF   MISSION   WORK  249 

of  England.  The  Methodist  societies  of  this 
country  and  Great  Britain  are  the  direct  creation 
of  the  highest  ecclesiastical  authority  in  the  differ- 
ent bodies,  and  are  answerable  to  them,  but  once 
constituted  are  practically  independent  in  their 
action.  In  the  Presbyterian  denominations  and 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  the  theory  is  that  the  boards  are  really 
"the  Church"  acting  through  a  certain  number 
of  persons  made  into  a  corporate  body  merely 
for  convenience  and  in  order  to  satisfy  legal  re- 
quirements as  to  the  holding  of  property,  etc. 
The  theory  is  carried  out  with  different  degrees 
of  insistence  in  different  branches,  but  in  general 
the  boards  are  the  executive  committees  for  for- 
eign missions  of  the  various  General  Assemblies. 
In  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  the  consti- 
tution of  the  Domestic  and  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  provides  that  it  shall  comprehend  "all 
persons  who  are  members  "  of  that  Church.  The 
society  itself  is  the  executive  form  of  the  Church. 
Other  Organizations.— Reference  should 
be  made  also  to  the  development  of  certain  other 
kinds  of  societies:  those  conducted  by  women, 
those  ha^g  for  their  object  the  assistance  of  the 
larger  societies,  those  intended  to  work  among 
young  people,  and  those  specially  designed  for 
educational  or  pubhcation  purposes.  The  aid 
societies  were  the  result  of  a  desire  on  the  part 
of  many  persons  to  give  assistance  to  work  with 
which  they  had  no  immediate  connection,  e.g., 
the  Christian  Faith  Society,  the  London  Associa- 
tion in  Aid  of  Moravian  Missions,  etc.  These, 
from  the  necessities  of  the  case,  have  always  been 
absolutely  independent  in  their  organization.  So, 
also,  for  the  most  part,  are  the  Christian  literature 
and  educational  societieSjwhich  are  chiefly  English. 


250  ORGANIZATION  AND   METHODS 

The  development  of  woman's  work  for  woman 
has  been  one  of  the  most  remarkable  factors  in 
foreign  mission  work.  It  has  already  in  a  pre- 
vious section  been  set  forth,  and  it  is  simply- 
necessary  here  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
these  are,  without  exception,  so  far  as  is  appa- 
rent, absolutely  independent  in  their  form  of 
organization,  although  most  are  connected  with 
and  in  a  sense  subordinate  to  some  general  mis- 
sionary society.  In  their  internal  organization 
they  are  very  similar  to  those,  and  in  some  cases 
practically  as  wide  in  their  work. 

The  work  among  young  people  both  at  home 
and  abroad  in  connection  with  missions  has  had 
a  marvelous  growth.  The  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  through  its  International  Committee, 
has  reached  out  to  the  young  men  of  India,  China, 
Japan,  and  Africa,  and  accomplished  a  great 
deal,  while  its  promise  for  the  future  is  very 
bright.  The  Young  People's  Society,  the  Society 
of  Christian  Endeavor,  Epworth  League,  Bap- 
tist Young  People's  Union,  and  the  like,  as  well 
as  innumerable  mission  bands  connected  with  the 
individual  churches,  have  assisted  greatly  in  arous- 
ing interest  in  missions  on  the  part  of  the  churches, 
and  have  been  important  contributors  to  the  re- 
ceipts of  the  boards.  The  most  distinctively  mis- 
sionary movement  of  this  class  is  the  Student 
Volunteer  Movement,  organized  to  enlist  direct 
personal  interest  in  the  cause  on  the  part  of  those 
who  may  be  able  to  make  missions  their  hfe-work, 
or  who  as  pastors  or  members  of  churches  at 
home  may  exert  an  influence  for  missions.  It  is 
strictly  undenominational,  or  rather  interdenomi- 
national, and  is  a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  regular 
missionary  societies. 


Ill 

AGENCIES    ON    THE    FIELD 

In  no  one  respect,  perhaps,  has  the  develop- 
ment of  missions  been  more  marked  than  in  the 
agencies  employed  on  the  field.  The  early  mis- 
sionaries were,  for  the  most  part,  men  not  spe- 
cially set  apart  for  the  work.  There  were  a  few 
such,  following  the  example  of  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas, but  the  spread  of  the  gospel  during  the  first 
two  centuries  was  accomplished  chiefly  by  individ- 
uals who  combined  preaching  with  their  regular 
business.  With  the  development  of  ecclesiasticism 
in  the  Church,  the  missionaries  were  all  clerical 
and  directly  connected  with  some  church  or 
under  the  orders  of  some  bishop.  This  rule  ex- 
tended throughout  the  middle  ages  and  the  post- 
Reformation  Roman  Catholic  missions.  The 
missionaries  were  among  the  best  educated  and 
the  most  earnest  of  the  Church,  and  the  roll,  in- 
cluding such  names  as  Augustine,  Columban, 
Ulfilas,  Cyril,  Methodius,  Ansgar,  Raymond  Lull, 
Xavier,  and  many  of  the  leaders  in  Canada  and 
this  country,  is  one  of  which  the  Church  may 
well  be  proud. 

Ordination  of  Missionaries.— The  early 
Protestant  missions  did  not  lay  much  stress  upon 
ordination.  Dober  and  Nitschmann,  the  Mora- 
vians, appear  to  have  been  laymen,  and  quite  a 
251 


252  ORGANIZATION  AND   METHODS 

number  of  those  first  sent  out  by  the  London 
Missionary  Society  and  the  German  societies  were 
men  not  merely  lacking  ordination,  but  compara- 
tively uneducated.  The  idea  apparently  was 
that  the  heathen  world  in  its  ignorance  did  not 
require  the  best  of  intellectual  ability,  if  only 
there  was  a  true  and  deep  spirituality.  The  ex- 
perience  of  Carey,  Gutzlaff,  Ziegenbalg,  Duff, 
Bridgman,  Riggs,  and  others,  showed  that  this 
was  a  mistake,  and  from  that  time  on  the  rule 
was  almost  universal  that  men  not  merely  of  edu- 
cation, but  of  exceptional  abihty,  were  the  ones 
to  be  relied  upon.  The  fact  that  at  that  time 
those  who  combined  these  qualities  with  the  req- 
uisite spiritual  power  were  to  be  found  almost 
solely  in  the  ranks  of  the  ministry  made  it  an  un- 
written law  that  the  regular  missionaries  intrusted 
with  responsible  direction  should  be  ordained  men. 
Laymen. — Laymen,  however,  were  early  rec- 
ognized as  holding  an  important  place.  There 
was  printing  to  be  done,  providing  the  Bible  and 
a  rehgious  hterature  for  the  people,  and  S.  Wells 
Williams  in  China  holds  a  place  second  to  none 
in  the  annals  of  missionary  attainment  not  less 
for  his  subsequent  high  position  than  for  his  ear- 
lier contribution  to  the  success  of  the  cause  to 
which  he  consecrated  his  life.  The  Arabic- 
speaking  world  owes  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  Ro- 
man Hallock,  of  Beirut,  as  well  as  to  Eli  Smith 
and  Cornehus  van  Dyck,  for  the  version  which 
is  used  over  all  Asia  and  Africa.  Alexander 
Mackay,  the  engineer  of  Uganda,  ranks  close 
beside  Bishop  Hannington.  At  present  the  more 
secular  departments  of  the  work,  such  as  the 
care  of  funds,  the  erection  of  buildings,  the  intro- 
duction of  industrial  education,  and  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  medical  work  and  certain  de- 


AGENCIES   ON  THE   FIELD  253 

partments  of  instruction  in  missionary  colleges, 
are  in  the  care  of  laymen,  and  they  share  equally 
with  their  ministerial  associates  the  responsibility 
and  direction  of  the  general  work. 

Women  as  Missionaries.— It  is  one  of  the 
marked  features  of  modern  missions  that  they 
have  recognized  so  fully  the  ministry  of  women. 
The  early  Church  honored  them  in  the  home  life 
and  to  a  degree  in  the  Church  and  community, 
but  never  thought  of  sending  them  as  missionaries. 
In  the  middle  ages  the  dominant  ecclesiasticism 
made  such  a  thing  impossible,  and  on  the  first 
Protestant  missions  men  went  alone.  With 
Carey  and  his  immediate  successors  there  came 
a  change.  The  family  and  the  home  were  rec- 
ognized as  genuine  evangelizing  agencies,  and  the 
story  of  the  devoted  women  who  accompanied 
Moffat,  Judson,  Newell,  and  many  others  is  one 
of  the  most  inspiring  in  the  history  of  the  Church. 
Theirs  was  a  double  duty.  They  exemplified 
the  power  and  beauty  of  a  Christian  home  in  the 
care  of  husband  and  children,  and  they  came 
close  to  the  hearts  of  those  who  had  been  left  in 
the  lowest  degradation  as  none  others  could.  It 
soon  became  evident  that  the  work  for  woman 
needed  additional  workers,  and  it  was  not  many 
years  before  single  women  made  application  for 
appointments  and  were  sent  to  do  a  service  of 
the  highest  type.  Such  women  as  Fideha  Fiske 
in  Persia,  Eliza  Agnewin  Ceylon,  Miss  Aldersey 
in  China,  did  noble  service,  and  it  was  largely 
due  to  their  testimony  that  the  enthusiasm  of 
women  at  home  was  aroused,  resulting  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  women's  boards,  already  referred 
to.  These  send  out  women,  sometimes  indepen- 
dently, sometimes  under  the  general  control  of 
the  larger  boards. 


254  ORGANIZATION  AND   METHODS 

Unmarried  Missionaries.  —  While  the 
great  number  of  men  who  have  been  in  the  mis- 
sionary service  during  the  past  century  have  been 
married,  there  have  always  been  some  who  have 
gone  alone,  believing  that  they  could  thus  press 
farther  in  pioneering  work.  Of  late  years  the  num- 
ber has  somewhat  increased,  and  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  community  idea  in  connection  with 
home  work  there  have  been  formed,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  Church  of  England  in  India, 
communities  of  young  men,  who,  living  together, 
have  sought  to  reach  the  people  in  their  own  life 
as  families  would  find  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
to  do.  In  all  such  cases,  however,  there  is  as- 
sociation. Seldom  or  never  are  single  men  sent 
forth  into  the  field  alone.  Unmarried  women  are 
also,  as  a  rule,  so  appointed  that  there  shall  be 
at  least  two  together.  There  has  arisen  much  dis- 
cussion on  the  subject.  In  some  countries  it  has 
been  held  that  unmarried  men  gave  occasion  for 
much  misapprehension,  even  scandal,  among  the 
people  who  could  not  understand  such  life.  It 
is,  however,  true  that  there  are  numerous  instances 
in  which  they  have  done  a  service  of  the  highest 
character  and  with  no  ill  results.  In  the  Arch- 
bishop's Mission  to  the  Assyrian  Christians,  the 
entire  force  is  composed  of  unmarried  men  and 
women.  The  Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  men 
and  women,  are  all  unmarried,  and  even  in  Africa 
and  China,  where  the  situation  in  this  respect  is 
probably  most  difficult,  they  are  held  in  personal 
esteem. 

Important  Aids. — Certain  facts  in  regard 
to  character,  equipment,  and  service  may  be  noted 
here  as  the  result  of  the  experience  of  mission- 
aries in  their  work  in  different  lands.  As  to  char- 
acter, intellectual  abihty,  a  taste  for  languages,  a 


AGENCIES  ON   THE   FIELD  255 

sense  of  justice  and  fairness,  sympathy,  and  es- 
pecially  common  sense,  may  be  mentioned  as 
important  aids  to  a  true  and  deep  devotion.  The 
combination  of  all  makes  an  ideal  missionary,  but 
many  successful  workers  have  been  deficient  in 
one  or  more,  except  the  last.  Good  health  and 
ability  to  endure  exposure,  hardship,  great  ner- 
vous, physical,  or  mental  strain,  are  invaluable, 
though  much  noble  service  has  been  in  weakness 
and  discouragement. 

Equipment  of  Missionaries.— This  has 
given  rise  to  much  discussion  and  has  passed 
through  many  stages.  Christ  sent  forth  His  dis- 
ciples two  and  two,  and  instructed  them  to  de- 
pend for  their  living  on  those  they  found  where 
they  went.  Paul  worked  at  his  trade  and  would 
be  chargeable  to  none.  Most  of  those  in  the 
early  Church  who  went  everywhere  preaching  the 
Word  did  so  at  their  own  charges.  With  the 
development  of  the  Church  the  missionaries 
looked  to  those  who  sent  them  for  support,  but 
thought  of  receiving  no  more  than  the  bare  ne- 
cessities of  living.  Roman  Catholic  priests  and 
monks  had  their  support  from  the  general  funds 
of  the  Church.  Ziegenbalg  was  supplied  fully 
and  comfortably  by  the  King  of  Denmark.  The 
two  Moravians  received  from  Count  Zinzendorf 
only  about  two  and  a  half  dollars  apiece  in  ad- 
dition to  the  three  dollars  they  already  had. 
Carey  expected  on  reaching  India  to  pay  his 
own  way,  but  found  circumstances  so  different 
from  his  anticipation  that  he  gave  it  up.  Since 
then  the  custom  has  been  to  meet  all  the  expense 
requisite  to  secure  for  the  missionaries  a  com- 
fortable living,  meaning  by  the  term  such  a  living 
as,  without  extravagance,  will  keep  them  in  good 
health  and  in  such  condition  that  they  can  work 


256  ORGANIZATION   AND   METHODS 

most  efficiently.  It  is  evident  that  the  sums 
necessary  for  this  must  vary  very  greatly  in 
different  countries,  and  even  in  different  parts  of 
the  same  country.  Cities  are  more  expensive 
than  villages.  Personal  conditions  must  also  be 
taken  into  account  to  some  degree.  After  much 
consideration  the  societies  have  adopted,  each 
for  itself,  a  system  by  which  the  amount  given  is 
graded  according  to  the  needs  of  each.  This  is 
ordinarily  called  a  salary ;  a  more  appropriate 
term  would  be  an  allowance,  as  there  is  no  ele- 
ment of  compensation  in  it :  it  is  simply  a  support. 
It  should  be  said  that  a  considerable  number  of 
missionaries,  especially  English,  meet  their  own 
expenses,  or  are  able  to  add  to  their  allowance 
from  private  funds ;  also,  many  receive  gifts  from 
friends.  If  examined  carefully,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  reports  of  missionary  extravagance  may 
almost  invariably  be  traced  to  such  instances, 
to  the  belief,  long  since  discarded  by  the  most 
experienced,  that  missionaries  should  live  like  the 
poorest  people  among  whom  they  labor,  or  to 
ignorance  and  misstatement  of  fact. 

In  this  connection  reference  should  be  made  to 
the  claim  of  some  societies,  as  the  China  Inland 
Mission,  that  they  send  out  missionaries  much 
more  cheaply  than  do  the  other  societies. 
Whether,  in  view  of  efficient  and  long-continued 
service,  the  claim  is  well  founded,  is  matter  for 
future  history.  Contemporary  statements  are 
somewhat  conflicting.  There  have  been,  also, 
some  attempts  at  self-supporting  missions,  espe- 
cially those  of  Bishop  William  Taylor,  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  in  Africa,  India, 
and  South  America.  The  theory  of  these  has 
been  that  the  missionaries,  after  arrival  on  the 
field  and  after  being  supplied  with  certain  equip- 


AGENCIES  ON  THE  FIELD  257 

ment  and  material,  should,  by  various  methods, 
— teaching,  agriculture,  trades,  etc., — support 
themselves.  This  is  not  solely  a  question  of  ex- 
pense, but  with  a  view  to  assisting  in  the  develop- 
ment of  such  enterprises  among  the  surrounding 
people.  With  regard  to  these  also  the  future 
must  decide,  although  so  far  the  general  verdict 
appears  to  be  against  their  permanent  usefulness. 
Manner  of  Life.— Akin  to  the  question  of 
support  is  that  of  the  manner  of  life.  Here  again 
there  has  been  considerable  change.  In  the  early 
Church  missionaries  went  among  those  of  like 
manners  and  customs  as  themselves.  Even  later 
the  difference  between  the  Asiatic  and  the  medi- 
eval monk  was  not  so  great  as  to  make  it  diffi- 
cult to  preserve  some  sort  of  common  Hfe. 
Under  modern  circumstances  that  is  impossible. 
One  of  the  most  serious  questions  confronting 
missionaries  has  been,  how  far  it  was  best  for 
them  to  accord  to  the  customs  of  the  country, 
and  how  far  they  ought  to  preserve  the  mode  of 
Hfe  with  which  they  were  familiar.  As  was  to 
be  expected,  there  have  been  a  great  variety  of 
experiments,  which  cannot  here  be  even  alluded 
to.  The  general  result  has  been  that  missionaries 
in  most  countries  preserve  home  habits  of  life  so 
far  as  possible  without  antagonizing  the  people 
among  whom  they  live.  In  some  cases  they 
adopt  certain  native  customs,  styles  of  dress,  etc., 
especially  in  China,  but  only  where  to  insist  upon 
their  own  would  raise  hostility  and  endanger  their 
work,  if  not  their  lives.  Efforts  to  adopt  native 
manners  have,  as  a  rule,  failed  to  accomplish  the 
end  sought,  and  in  many  instances  have  worked 
harm  to  the  missionaries,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  unostentatious  but  frank  setting  forth 
of  American  or  English  home  life  has  done  much 


^5^  ORGANIZATION   AND  METHODS 

to  elevate  the  ideas  of  the  people  and  stimulate 
them  to  a  better  life. 

In  regard  to  missionary  service  there  has  been 
an  apparent  change.  When  the  missionaries 
went  out  in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  their 
friends  bade  them  farewell,  expecting  not  to  see 
their  faces  again.  Mission  work  was  undertaken 
as  a  lifelong  service,  and  the  separation  from 
native  land  was  looked  upon,  except  for  special 
reasons,  as  permanent.  To  all  appearance  that 
has  passed  away.  It  is  now  the  custom  in  most 
missionary  societies  to  grant  furloughs  every  few 
years,  the  length  of  time  of  stay  on  the  field  vary- 
ing from  seven  to  ten  years.  This  practice,  as 
others  in  the  conduct  of  missions,  is  the  result  of 
experience,  and  expresses  the  conviction  that  in 
the  long  run  that  method  secures  the  most  effec- 
tive service. 

Missions.  —  Missionaries  on  the  field  are  not 
merely  individuals ;  they  are  members  of  organi- 
zations called  missions.  The  term  "  mission  "  is 
used  in  a  variety  of  senses.  Sometimes,  and  that 
is  in  the  main  the  historical  use,  it  is  applied  to 
a  particular  effort,  as  missions  to  the  Chinese,  to 
Moslems,  zenana  missions,  medical  missions,  in- 
dustrial missions,  and  the  like.  Another  and 
more  technical  use  has  grown  up,  and  is  that 
found  in  the  reports  of  missionary  societies  and 
generally  employed  in  ordinary  reference  to  the 
work  on  the  field.  In  this  sense  a  mission  is  an 
association  of  missionaries  of  a  particular  society, 
occupying  a  certain  territory.  It  is  not  a  cor- 
porate body,  as  is  the  board  at  home,  but  rather 
a  branch  or  auxiliary  of  the  board,  organized  for 
the  more  methodical  conduct  of  the  work  on  the 
field,  and  for  the  decision  of  such  questions  as 
cannot  conveniently,  or  need  not,  be  referred  to 


AGENCIES   ON   THE   FIELD  259 

the  society.  It  is  composed  of  the  male  mem- 
bers of  the  missionary  body,  although  of  late 
years  the  question  of  the  admission  of  women 
has  been  agitated,  and  in  some  places  they  have 
been  allowed  a  vote  on  matters  pecuharly  within 
their  province.  The  organization  of  the  missions 
has  been  to  a  considerable  degree  a  development, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  boards.  At  first  they  were 
Httle  more  than  associations  for  mutual  consul- 
tation. Officers,  secretary,  and  treasurer  were 
appointed  to  facilitate  communication  with  the 
home  board.  Gradually,  however,  important 
questions  came  up  which  must  be  decided  on 
the  field,  e.g.,  the  location  of  missionaries,  the 
selection  of  new  fields,  the  employment  of  native 
assistants,  the  formation  of  churches,  the  adop- 
tion of  pohcies,  etc.  Most  important,  in  some 
respects,  of  all  is  the  preparation  of  estimates 
and  the  apportionments  of  appropriations.  In 
almost  all  matters  an  appeal  is  possible  to  the 
home  board,  and  estimates  are  always  so  re- 
ferred, but  the  decision  of  the  mission  is  seldom 
reversed.  The  mission,  in  most  cases,  meets  an- 
nually at  some  station.  Sometimes  all  the  mis- 
sionaries are  present,  sometimes  delegates  repre- 
sent the  different  stations. 

The  mission  station  is  an  integral  part  of  the 
mission,  formed  and  conducted  on  the  same 
general  plan,  only  more  circumscribed.  Gener- 
ally located  in  a  city,  its  field  includes  a  consider- 
able section  of  the  country  around.  An  outsta- 
tion  or  substation  is  subordinate  to  the  station. 
It  is  ordinarily  not  the  residence  of  a  missionary. 

Reference  must  be  made  to  a  subject  that  has 
occasioned  no  little  perplexity  in  the  conduct  of 
missions,  the  relation  to  one  another  of  the  dif- 
ferent mission  organizations  occupying  essentially 


26o      ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

the  same  territory.  As  the  societies  first  sent 
out  their  representatives,  the  world  was  so  wide 
that  there  was  no  thought  of  possible  clashing  of 
interests.  Each  went  to  whatever  part  of  the 
world  seemed,  on  the  whole,  most  attractive. 
The  result  was,  especially  in  India,  China,  and 
Japan,  that  a  number  of  societies  were  repre- 
sented in  each  of  the  larger  centers,  from  which 
work  could  be  extended  easily  into  the  surround- 
ing country.  Had  the  societies  represented 
churches  of  the  same  doctrine  and  ritual,  this 
would  not  have  occasioned  so  much  difficulty ; 
but  the  denominational  differences  projected 
themselves  into  the  mission  field,  and  Baptists, 
Presbyterians,  Methodists,  Episcopalians,  etc., 
found  themselves  appealing  each  to  something 
of  the  same  constituency.  The  result  was  not  a 
little  friction.  There  have  been  various  efforts 
made  to  remove  this  difficulty.  Territorial  divi- 
sion has  been  suggested,  common  rules  as  to  the 
employment  of  natives,  etc.  The  question  has 
not  yet  been  decided,  though  mutual  accommo- 
dation and  consideration  have  mitigated  some  of 
the  worst  evils. 

Native  Helpers.— Among  the  most  effective 
agencies  of  mission  work  are  the  natives  em- 
ployed as  preachers,  teachers,  Bible-women,  col- 
porteurs, and  helpers  of  various  kinds.  These 
will  be  referred  to  in  the  succeeding  chapters  on 
the  methods  of  mission  work,  but  a  statement 
here  is  necessary  to  complete  the  view  of  the 
workers  on  the  field.  In  general  they  correspond 
very  closely  to  kindred  workers  at  home.  Often 
of  a  very  high  grade  of  abifity,  they  have  done  a 
work  such  as  few,  if  any,  foreigners  could  do. 
Such  men  as  Bishop  Crowther  and  Joseph  Nee- 
sima  have  international  reputations,  while  num- 


AGENCIES  ON  THE  FIELD  26 1 

bers  of  preachers  in  India,  Turkey,  and  China 
rank  among  the  most  effective  orators  in  any 
land.  As  scholars,  too,  their  service  is  of  the 
highest.  The  great  versions  of  the  Bible  owe  not 
a  httle  to  their  abihty,  not  merely  their  know- 
ledge of  their  own  languages,  but  their  under- 
standing of  foreign  ideas  and  general  philology. 
Not  less  important,  however,  than  the  contribu- 
tion of  the  leaders  has  been  the  work  of  the  more 
humble  laborers.  The  writer  recalls  very  vividly 
the  weekly  meetings  with  colporteurs,  who,  in  the 
face  of  bitter  opposition,  much  contumely,  and 
almost  universal  indifference,  carried  the  Bible 
for  sale  in  the  streets  of  Constantinople  and 
throughout  the  provinces  of  the  Levant.  Not 
highly  educated  as  the  world  counts  education, 
they  were  taught  of  the  Spirit,  and  the  skill  with 
which  they  met  highly  cultured  Moslems  and  men 
filled  with  the  infidelity  of  Europe  bore  eloquent 
witness  to  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise  that  He 
would  teach  them  what  to  say. 

The  selection  of  these  men  from  the  list  of 
those  who  are  gathered  into  the  Christian  com- 
munities is  one  of  the  most  perplexing  duties  of 
the  missionary.  On  the  one  hand,  there  is  the 
feeling  that  the  great  and  constantly  increasing 
need  of  the  field,  the  ever  new  opportunities, 
call  for  as  many  laborers  as  possible.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  the  fact  that  often  to  push 
forward  into  responsible  positions  those  who  are 
still  immature  in  character  is  to  incur  the  risk  of 
great  harm  to  them  and  to  the  best  interests  of 
the  work.  That  the  record  of  those  selected  is 
so  clear,  and  that  they  have  done  so  much,  is 
proof  of  the  thoroughness  of  the  work  done  in 
them  by  the  Spirit  and  for  them  through  the  mis- 
sionaries.    That  they  should  at  times  develop 


262      ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

characteristics  not  exactly  in  accordance  with 
what  could  be  wished  is  not  to  be  wondered  at. 
No  one  who  has  read  the  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  ministry  in  Christian  lands  should  be 
surprised  if  the  corresponding  history  in  mission 
lands  shows  some  faihngs.  These  will  be  referred 
to  later  in  connection  with  the  development  of 
the  native  church  and  education. 

Aids  to  Missions.— This  chapter  would  not 
be  complete  without  a  reference  to  the  great 
value  to  missions  of  certain  things  which  cannot 
properly  be  called  agencies,  and  which  yet  have 
aided  not  a  little  in  the  work  of  spreading  the 
gospel.  Among  them  the  most  important  are 
commercial  enterprise,  including  the  extension  of 
means  of  communication  between  different  coun- 
tries, and  the  diplomatic  service,  guiding  the  in- 
ternational relations  of  governments.  One  has 
only  to  read  the  record  of  the  early  missionary 
enterprises  to  reahze  the  change  that  steam  and 
electricity  have  made.  The  sailing-vessel,  which 
often  took  months  to  reach  India,  has  been  suc- 
ceeded by  the  steamer,  that  covers  the  distance 
in  as  many  weeks.  Now  it  is  only  some  of  the 
Pacific  islands  that  get  their  mail  once  or  twice 
a  year,  and  there  commerce  is  reaching  out  its 
arms,  and  letters  go  and  come  with  increasing 
frequency.  The  attack  on  a  mission  compound 
in  China  is  known  in  New  York  as  soon  as  in 
Peking,  and  almost  before  the  trouble  has  quieted. 
In  the  countries  themselves  great  changes  have 
taken  place.  The  horse-path  has  been  succeeded 
by  the  carriage-road,  and  that  by  the  railway,  and 
many  a  home  comfort  can  be  supphed  to  the 
missionary  at  less  expense  than  much  that  is 
purchased  on  the  ground.  All  this  has  not  only 
made  mission  work  easier,  but  more  effective. 


AGENCIES  ON  THE  FIELD  263 

One  man  can  do  now  what  required  the  labor  of 
two  formerly. 

Diplomatic  Relations.— The  relation  of 
governments  to  missions  is  one  of  great  impor- 
tance. It  has  made  Paul's  appeal  unto  Caesar 
po.ssible  to  American  and  English  citizens  in  the 
remotest  lands,  and  has  protected  them  frequently 
against  violence.  This  protection  has  operated 
in  two  ways :  to  preserve  them  for  future  useful- 
ness, and  to  impress  upon  the  people  the  power 
as  well  as  the  value  of  Christianity.  While  no 
missionary,  notwithstanding  what  has  been  some- 
times charged,  ever  seeks  to  gain  entrance  for 
himself  or  his  message  through  appeal  to  force, 
he  knows  that  in  many  cases  only  the  fear  of 
force  will  deter  the  evil-minded  from  enforcing 
their  own  opposition  to  the  entrance  of  the  gos- 
pel and  preventing  its  reception  by  their  fellows. 
The  protection  of  missionaries  carries  with  it  in 
many  cases  the  protection  of  those  who  have 
professed  their  faith.  A  notable  instance  of  this 
has  been  furnished  recently  in  Turkey.  The 
fact  that  Miss  Shattuck  at  Urfa  was  under  the 
protection  of  the  American  government  was  all 
that  operated  in  any  degree  as  a  check  upon  the 
murderous  ferocity  of  the  Turks.  Had  the  mis- 
sionaries in  Harput  been  better  protected  there 
would  have  been  fewer  Armenians  killed  in  that 
city.  Similarly  in  China.  The  punishment  of 
those  who  committed  the  outrage  at  Chentu  was 
effective  not  less  for  the  native  Christians  than 
for  the  missionaries. 

It  must  also  be  said  that  to  the  diplomatic  ser- 
vice are  due  the  opening  of  China  and  Japan,  the 
erection  of  Robert  College  at  Constantinople, 
and  a  number  of  other  acts  which  have  rendered 
missionary  work  possible  as  well  as  effective. 


264  ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

This  has  not  always  been  due  to  direct  interest  in 
missions.  Sometimes  there  has  been  cordial  ap- 
preciation of  their  service  to  humanity ;  more 
often  the  ground  has  been  that  of  national  obh- 
gation  to  care  for  those  who,  doing  at  least  no 
harm,  have  a  right  to  protection.  It  is  right, 
however,  to  say  that,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
the  relations  between  missionaries  and  those  who 
have  represented  their  governments  in  mission 
lands  have  been  most  friendly,  and  many  of  the 
most  earnest  tributes  to  the  value  of  missions  have 
come  from  men  high  in  the  diplomatic  service, 
not  merely  of  England  and  America,  but  of  the 
continental  powers.  A  singular  instance  is  re- 
cently furnished  in  the  change  that  has  taken 
place  in  the  attitude  of  the  Spanish  governor  of 
the  Caroline  Islands  in  the  Pacific  to  the  mis- 
sionaries and  their  work  at  Ponape.  Even  he 
was  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  value  of  the 
work  and  the  high  character  of  the  missionaries, 
and  whereas  he  had  previously  forbidden  all  in- 
tercourse, he  reversed  the  order,  and  not  only 
permitted,  but  welcomed,  the  missionary  ship  to 
the  island. 


IV 


METHODS  — EVANGELIZATION  — ZENANA   AND 
MEDICAL  WORK 

Three  problems  have  always  met  those  who 
have  gone  forth  to  carry  the  gospel  message  to 
distant  lands  :  how  to  gain  access  to  the  thoughts 
and  hearts  of  the  people  ;  how  to  guide  and  assist 
them  individually  in  developing  the  full  Christian 
character ;  how  to  organize  them,  that  the  work 
of  further  development  and  of  extension  may  be 
safely  left  to  them  without  external  aid.  This 
and  the  two  succeeding  chapters  are  devoted 
to  the  consideration  of  the  means  and  methods 
adopted  for  the  solution  of  these  problems.  In 
this  chapter  we  take  up  the  first:  how  to  reach 
the  people.  As  is  natural,  therefore,  it  applies 
particularly  to  pioneer  work,  whether  in  the  en- 
trance upon  entirely  new  fields  or  in  the  extension 
into  unoccupied  sections  of  older  fields.  It  as- 
sumes that  the  people  to  be  reached  have  not 
heard  the  gospel  message. 

Three  Classes  of  People.— In  almost  every 
mission  country,  and  even  community,  three 
classes  of  people  are  to  be  found.  A  very  few 
are  dissatisfied  with  their  condition,  and  are  pre- 
pared to  hsten  appreciatively  to  the  proclamation 
of  a  new  faith,  on  the  chance  that  it  may  offer  them 
a  surer  hope  for  the  future,  or  at  least  more  of 
265 


266  ORGANIZATION   AND   METHODS 

comfort  and  help  for  the  present.  A  large  num- 
ber are  not  merely  perfectly  satisfied  with  their 
own  religion,  but  actively  interested  in  its  support 
and  propagation.  The  great  majority  every- 
where accept  the  faith  in  which  they  have  been 
brought  up,  without  a  thought  of  criticism  or  an 
idea  that  there  can  be  anything  better.  They 
are  not  enthusiastic  in  their  devotion  to  it,  except 
as  they  are  stirred  by  fanatical  appeals  of  the 
leaders  belonging  to  the  second  class,  and  are 
made  to  feel  that  cherished  customs  and  relations 
are  endangered  by  those  who  come  preaching  a 
new  doctrine.  It  is  by  no  means  true  that  the 
lines  between  these  classes  are  always  clear. 
They  exist,  however,  and  it  is  to  the  first  class 
that  the  missionary  looks  in  general  for  the 
foundation  on  which  he  hopes  to  build  his  work. 
Sometimes  it  appears  as  if  they  were  absolutely 
lacking.  In  more  than  one  mission  field  the 
laborers  have  waited  patiendy  year  after  year 
without  finding  any  to  listen  appreciatively,  but 
as  a  rule  a  few  are  found  to  whom  the  word  of 
salvation  comes  like  clear  water  to  a  thirsty  soul. 
Giving  the  Message.— The  question  which 
faces  the  missionary,  and  which  is  one  that  might 
well  make  the  boldest  hesitate,  is,  how  he  is  to 
meet  these  people  and  so  give  expression  to  his 
message  as  to  reach  the  hearts  of  those  who,  by 
the  Spirit  of  God,  may  have  been  prepared  to 
receive  it.  It  is  fortunate  that  the  answer  to 
the  question  is  very  clear  from  the  united  testi- 
mony of  the  successful  workers  since  the  time 
of  the  apostles.  Whenever  substantial  work  has 
been  done  it  has  been  by  the  dvveUing  upon  two 
themes— the  need  of  man,  the  sufficiency  of 
Christ.  The  need  is  one  of  sin ;  the  sufficiency 
is  that  of  salvation.     When  those  two  themes 


EVANGELIZATION  267 

have  been  the  burden  of  the  missionaries  there 
has  been  a  response.  Sometimes  it  has  been 
long  in  coming,  but  in  due  time  it  has  come. 
Its  permanence  and  power  have  also  been  in  pro- 
portion to  the  simplicity  of  the  gospel  as  pre- 
sented. There  have  been  no  more  valiant  mis- 
sionaries than  the  Nestorians  who,  in  the  seventh 
century,  penetrated  into  China  and  gathered  a 
large  number  of  converts.  They,  however,  were 
under  the  influence  of  the  theological  controver- 
sies in  regard  to  the  person  of  Christ,  and  it  was 
probably  due  in  large  measure  to  the  fact  that 
that  theological  dogma  overbore  the  simplicity  of 
the  proclamation  of  the  Saviour  and  His  salva- 
tion that  their  work  faded  away.  The  insistence 
on  the  Church  and  its  sacraments  weakened  the 
power  of  the  successors  of  Xavier,  and  impaired 
the  vigor  of  the  Christian  communities  in  India 
and  the  Americas,  as  it  had  already  that  of  the 
evangelized  Saxons,  Germans,  Slavs,  and  others 
in  Europe. 

Modern  missions  have  followed  the  earlier  and 
simpler  style  of  presentation.  They  have  sought 
to  reach  the  hearts  of  the  people  and  win  their 
affection,  focusing  all  attention  on  the  personal 
Redeemer.  In  doing  this  they  have  followed  no 
one  method,  in  the  sense  in  which  the  word  is  so 
often  used  to  indicate  a  plan  or  system,  includ- 
ing rules  made  to  accord  to  some  general  policy, 
and  in  which  it  is  legitimately  used  in  regard  to 
the  later  phases  of  the  work.  In  another  and 
broader  sense  they  have  used  methods,  under- 
standing by  the  term  general  lines  of  action.  Of 
these  the  most  important  have  been  personal  in- 
tercourse, preaching  in  houses  and  places  of  public 
gathering,  visiting  from  house  to  house,  distribut- 
ing Scriptures  or  tracts,  singing,  medical  aid — 


268  ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

indeed,  anything  that  could  bring  them  into  per- 
sonal contact  with  the  people.  There  has  been 
much  traveling,  or  touring,  as  it  is  called,  in  which 
a  number  of  places  were  visited  and  a  large  cir- 
cle reached. 

Preliminary  Qualifications.— Before  not- 
ing these  methods  in  particular,  it  will  be  well  to 
consider  some  of  the  preHminaries  to  their  suc- 
cessful use.  Of  these  the  first  is  a  correct 
knowledge  of  the  language  of  the  people,  and 
not  merely  of  their  language,  but  of  their  habits 
and  modes  of  thought.  While  undoubtedly  this 
is  more  essential  in  dealing  with  some  nations 
than  with  others,  it  is  in  every  case  the  founda- 
tion of  successful  proclamation  of  the  gospel. 
True  of  any  deahngs  with  other  nations,  it  is  es- 
pecially true  of  missionary  enterprises.  The 
languages  of  Christian  nations,  however  diverse 
in  form,  have  much  in  common.  The  terms  of 
Christianity  are  found  in  each  and  have  essen- 
tially the  same  meaning.  Not  so  with  non-Chris- 
tian languages.  They  have  no  words  to  express 
many  of  the  most  ordinary  truths  of  Christianity, 
simply  because  the  people  who  use  them  utterly 
lack  the  conception.  The  missionary  who  would 
preach  effectively  must,  therefore,  not  only  know 
the  words  of  the  language  he  speaks,  but  so  ac- 
quire the  thoughts  and  genius  of  the  language  as 
to  be  able,  if  necessary,  to  coin  a  word  and  to 
explain  it  so  that  his  hearers  shall  gain  the  con- 
ception he  wishes  to  give,  or  to  take  some  word 
of  kindred  significance  and  stamp  upon  it  the 
meaning  he  wishes.  Thus  few  non- Christian 
languages  have  any  words  for  sin  or  repentance, 
and  in  China  there  is  still  diversity  of  opinion  as 
to  the  proper  word  to  use  for  God. 

Scarcely  less  important  than  knowledge  of  the 


EVANGELIZATION  269 

language  is  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  thought 
of  the  people,  of  the  ideas  that  dominate  their 
behef  and  action.  The  missionary  in  China 
must  understand  what  ancestral  worship  is,  and 
what  it  requires  on  the  part  of  the  people.  In 
India  the  more  he  can  know  of  the  way  in  which 
the  Vedas  have  worked  into  popular  thought 
the  better  he  will  be  able  to  do  what  Paul  did 
at  Athens.  The  thought  even  of  the  Hottentot 
must  be  understood  if  it  is  to  be  replaced  by  the 
thought  of  Christ.  Kindred  to  this  is  the  ability 
to  enter  into  the  feelings  of  people ;  to  sympa- 
thize with  their  peculiar  needs ;  to  appreciate 
their  customs ;  to  recognize  the  inner  qualities 
which  make  possible  a  noble  character,  even 
though  the  surroundings  be  degrading  and  sinful. 
The  missionary  should  be  able  to  do,  in  a  mea- 
sure, what  the  Master  did  when  He  suffered  the 
woman  that  was  a  sinner  to  wash  His  feet.  So, 
also,  he  must  be  able  to  mingle  with  the  people, 
and  share  in  some  degree  their  life,  the  formal 
life  of  the  Mandarin  as  well  as  the  poor,  even  re- 
pulsive, life  of  the  Pariah ;  just  as  the  Saviour 
asserted  His  right  to  the  honors  due  to  a  guest 
at  the  Pharisee's  table,  but  could  also  talk  famil- 
iarly with  the  woman  of  Samaria. 

How  essential  equipment  in  each  one  of  these 
respects  has  been  considered  by  the  most  suc- 
cessful workers  in  every  age  can  be  best  learned 
by  reading  the  records  of  the  lives  of  those  who 
have  led  the  way.  The  years  spent  in  unremit- 
ting study  by  Judson,  Morrison,  and  Bridgman, 
the  pains  taken  by  Vanderkemp,  Moffat,  Paton, 
Dr.  Grant,  to  enter  into  the  circumstances  of 
Hottentots,  South  Sea  Islanders,  and  Nestorians, 
the  labor  of  committing  to  memory  passages  of 
Asiatic  philosophy  and  poetry  by  Jacob  Cham- 


270  ORGANIZATION   AND   METHODS 

berlain  and  W.  A.  P.  Martin,  all  go  to  show  that 
the  most  successful  missionary  has  been,  and  will 
be,  the  man  or  woman  who  can  enter  most  fully 
into  what  we  call  the  life  of  the  people — who  can 
be,  as  the  apostle  was,  "all  things  to  all  men." 

Turning  now  to  the  actual  work,  an  answer  is 
attempted  to  the  questions,  What  does  a  mission- 
ary do  when  he  wishes  to  gain  access  to  the 
people?  How  does  he  go  to  work  to  influence 
them?  Anything  like  a  complete  answer  to  these 
would  require  a  volume  in  itself  and  would  be 
little  more  than  a  summary  of  the  lives  of  typical 
missionaries ;  yet  some  general  statements  may 
be  of  assistance  to  those  who  have  not  access  to 
such  books  as  Chamberlain's  "  In  the  Tiger  Jun- 
gle," the  hves  of  John  Paton,  Judson,  Carey,  and 
others. 

Personal  Conversation.— The  first  and 
most  important,  as  well  as  universal,  method  has 
always  been  personal  conversation.  Rarely,  if 
ever,  have  the  foundations  of  mission  work  been 
laid  in  crowds.  Individuals  have  been  drawn  by 
the  effect  of  personal  contact  to  give  expression 
to  their  own  need,  to  inquire  for  their  own  sal- 
vation, and  to  accept  their  own  personal  Saviour. 
They  may  have  been  met  accidentally,  may  have 
been  sought  out  by  the  missionary,  may  have 
come  through  curiosity,  or  even  for  the  purpose 
of  controverting  the  doctrine  of  Christianity ;  they 
may  have  been  approached  through  any  one  of 
innumerable  avenues ;  but,  in  whatever  way  the 
intercourse  has  been  opened,  those  thus  influenced 
include,  as  Dr.  Nevius,  of  China,  says,  by  far  the 
greater  proportion  of  converts,  especially  in  pio- 
neer work.  It  is  significant,  also,  that  modern 
Roman  CathoHc  missionaries  employ  this  means 
almost  exclusively. 


EVANGELIZATION  27 1 

Preaching. — By  this  is  always  understood 
the  addressing  of  a  number  of  people.  In  pio- 
neer work  it  may  be  in  the  street,  a  public  square, 
market-place,  or  some  other  location  where  men 
naturally  congregate.  Sometimes  the  inn  has 
been  utilized,  occasionally  a  private  house  be- 
longing to  one  who  by  some  means  has  been 
drawn  to  manifest  an  interest  in  the  preacher. 
Dr.  Chamberlain,  in  his  book  "  In  the  Tiger 
Jungle,"  gives  some  very  interesting  illustrations 
of  the  gatherings  in  different  villages  among  the 
Telugus,  when  the  missionary  with  his  native  as- 
sistants, at  a  street  corner  early  in  the  morning, 
roused  the  curiosity  and  then  the  interest  of 
the  people  by  singing  Telugu  hymns,  and  then 
preached  to  them.  More  than  one  missionary 
has  turned  the  curiosity  of  those  who  gathered 
about  his  tent,  or  the  door  of  the  room  where 
he  stayed,  to  good  account,  and  made  his  text 
some  little  thing  that  attracted  their  notice. 

The  essential  thing,  however,  is  not  the  gather- 
ing of  a  crowd,— that  can  be  done  in  almost  any 
country, — but  the  subject  of  the  preaching,  the 
method  adopted  in  setting  forth  the  message. 
This  is  always  in  the  simplest  style  possible.  The 
traditional  sermon  of  the  American  or  English 
service,  with  its  definite  theme  and  regular  treat- 
ment, has  been  rarely  used.  Occasionally  it  has 
been  found  valuable  in  some  Indian  assembly 
where  educated  Hindus,  Buddhists,  or  Moslems 
have  gathered,  as  did  the  Athenians  of  old,  to 
hear  the  "  new  thing  "  the  foreigner  has  to  tell. 
More  frequently  the  formal  sermon  or  address 
belongs,  however,  to  the  later  period,  when  al- 
ready there  is  some  knowledge  of  the  new  faith. 
The  form  that  has  had  the  greatest  success  is  the 
simple  story  of  the  cross,  the  gospel  translated 


272  ORGANIZATION   AND  METHODS 

into  the  terms  familiar  even  to  the  villager.  It 
is  comparatively  seldom  that  discussion,  espe- 
cially controversy,  is  used.  Sometimes  it  is  forced 
upon  the  missionary,  and  he  must  be  equipped  to 
meet  it  and  hold  his  own  if  he  would  win  the  re- 
spect of  those  he  seeks  to  influence.  Sometimes 
in  the  later  stages  he  may  court  it  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  the  fallacies  of  antichristian  ar- 
guments or  the  worthlessness  of  such  dogmas. 
In  the  main,  however,  it  has  been  recognized  that 
men  are  influenced  less  by  argument  than  by 
persuasion,  and  that  defeat  in  argument  is  more 
apt  to  embitter  than  to  placate.  The  object,  as 
already  stated,  being  to  win  men  rather  than  to 
overcome  systems,  the  method  of  address  is 
adapted  to  convince  rather  than  to  mortify. 

Relation  to  Native  Customs.— Here  it  is 
legitimate  to  refer  to  the  much-discussed  question, 
especially  of  late  years,  what  relation  the  mis- 
sionary should  hold  to  the  doctrines  and  customs 
held  by  the  people  whom  he  wishes  to  reach. 
Is  he  to  condemn  them  absolutely ;  is  he  to  con- 
done them  as  having  some  truth,  and  thus  rather 
better  than  none  at  all ;  or  is  he  to  avoid  all  refer- 
ence to  them?  Here,  as  in  other  similar  m^atters, 
the  answer  is  to  be  found  in  the  experience  and 
practice  of  those  who  have  been  most  successful. 
Raymond  Lull  fought  Islam  with  his  whole 
power,  and  he  has  had  not  a  few  followers  in 
later  years.  One  of  the  most  learned  missiona- 
ries of  an  English  society  is  best  known  by  a  con- 
troversial tract  on  Islam.  Neither  has,  so  far 
as  is  apparent,  achieved  great  result.  De  Nobili, 
and  others  who  followed  Xavier,  sought  to  use 
whatever  in  Buddhism  and  Confucianism  was  not 
at  first  sight  directly  contrary  to  the  gospel,  and 
the  result  was  a  sort  of  pagan  Christianity,  which 


EVANGELIZATION  273 

compelled  the  most  positive  censure  of  the  au- 
thorities at  Rome  and  proved  the  ruin  of  Xavier's 
great  work.  The  practice  of  those  who  have 
been  most  successful  has  been  never  to  weaken 
in  the  slightest  the  claims  of  Christianity  as  the 
sole  religion,  but  at  the  same  time  to  recognize 
the  good  in  the  faiths  of  the  people,  and  to  avoid 
so  far  as  possible  topics  on  which  there  may  arise 
sharp  difference  of  opinion.  With  a  Moslem, 
belief  in  the  divinity  of  Christ  has  usually  come 
as  a  result  of  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  using  the 
words  of  the  missionary,  rather  than  as  a  result 
of  argument.  Many  a  foe  has  been  disarmed  by 
an  adroit  use  of  the  same  weapon,  made  so 
effective  by  Paul  at  Mars  Hill,  who  would  have 
been  lost  forever  had  the  idolatry  of  his  ancestors 
been  unsparingly  condemned. 

Traveling.  —  One  of  the  most  important 
methods  adopted  in  the  introduction  of  mission 
work  into  a  new  field  is  traveling,  or  touring,  as 
it  is  often  technically  called.  This  accomphshes 
three  purposes :  it  gives  knowledge  of  the  field, 
and  thus  of  its  needs  and  opportunities;  gives 
occasion  for  personal  conversation  and  preach- 
ing ;  and  also  helps  to  familiarize  the  people  with 
the  appearance  of  the  missionary  and  with  his 
errand.  Few  people  who  have  not  had  experi- 
ence realize  how  much  missionary  success  de- 
pends upon  removing  the  sense  of  strangeness 
that  attends  the  coming  of  those  who  are  unfa- 
miliar in  their  appearance,  and  whose  words  and 
teachings  are  not  only  inconsistent  with,  but  an- 
tagonistic to,  those  to  which  the  people  have 
been  trained  through  generations.  A  second 
visit  will  accomplish  more  than  the  first.  The 
Apostle  Paul's  three  journeys  were  a  good  model 
for  the  modern  missionary. 


2  74  ORGANIZATION   AND  METHODS 

Bible  and  Tract  Distribution.— This  is 

of  varying  value  in  different  countries.  Among 
people  who  can  read,  or  who  have  already  some 
general  idea  of  the  truth,  the  wide  spread  of  the 
Bible,  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  of  tracts 
has  been  invaluable.  Especially  is  this  true  of 
Turkey,  Syria,  Persia,  and  Roman  Catholic 
countries.  In  India,  also,  it  has  been  carried  on 
with  great  success.  In  China,  however,  there 
are  many  who  question  its  value  as  a  pioneer 
method,  owing  to  the  fact  that  so  few  get  any 
idea  at  all  from  the  printed  word,  except  as  it  is 
attended  by  explanation.  In  general  its  value  is 
greatest  in  what  we  call  the  second  stage  of  mis- 
sionary work,  and  it  is  referred  to  more  fully  in 
the  succeeding  chapter. 

Zenana  Work.— Under  this  head  we  include 
the  general  work  by  women  for  women  who  are 
so  situated  as  not  to  come  under  the  influence  or 
within  the  reach  of  the  ordinary  missionary,  and 
require  special  efforts.  In  the  Pacific  islands 
and  South  Africa  the  women,  though  degraded 
and  humiliated,  were  accessible.  Among  the 
Armenians,  Greeks,  Nestorians,  they  had  a  posi- 
tion recognized  by  their  own  people,  and  although 
their  place  was  apart,  they  had  a  place.  In 
India  the  great  majority  were  completely  shut 
off  from  any  approach  by  the  missionary.  Hid- 
den behind  the  lattice  or  the  curtain  of  the  harem, 
forbidden  to  speak  with  foreigners,  they  might 
as  well  have  been  out  of  the  world,  so  far  as  any 
possibility  of  their  coming  under  missionary  in- 
fluence was  concerned.  The  occasion  of  the 
formation  of  woman's  societies  has  been  already 
told  in  the  first  section  of  this  book.  It  is  suffi- 
cient here  to  note  the  fact  that  the  same  general 
methods  are  adopted  in  reaching  the  women  as 


EVANGELIZATION  275 

the  men,  except,  perhaps,  pubHc  preaching. 
That,  under  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  can 
scarcely  be  carried  on,  although  something  very- 
like  it  not  infrequently  takes  place  where  a  num- 
ber are  gathered  together.  Instead  of  preaching, 
however,  instruction,  scarcely  yet  education,  is  a 
most  important  means  adopted.  The  women  of 
the  East  are  uniformly  ignorant,  even  of  the  most 
ordinary  matters  of  life  outside  of  their  limited 
sphere,  and  in  many  cases  the  first  essential  is  to 
waken  the  mind  so  that  it  can  think  and  act. 
Spiritual  life  has  no  small  connection  with  intel- 
lectual life,  and  the  being  who  never  thinks  has 
little,  if  any,  conception  of  the  need  of  salvation. 
This  instruction  is,  as  a  rule,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  most  primary  character,  although  not  a  few 
instances  have  been  found  of  women  who  seem 
to  have  been  already  taught  of  the  Spirit,  so  as 
to  be  ready  to  accept  the  truth  as  soon  as  it  is 
made  known. 

In  the  more  strictly  zenana  work,  as  in  the 
general  work  for  women,  the  chief  method  is 
house-to-house  visiting,  reading  and  explanation 
of  the  Bible,  and  from  it  has  grown  up  the  very 
extensive  employment  of  what  are  termed  Bible- 
women.  These  are  natives  trained  by  the  mis- 
sionaries, and  thus  have  access  to  homes  which 
the  foreigner  might  find  it  difficult  to  enter. 
They  have  done  a  noble  service  in  many  fields 
and  among  many  classes  of  people. 

Medical  Work.— There  are  few  methods  of 
gaining  access  to  the  people  in  foreign  mission 
fields  so  uniformly  successful  as  medical  work. 
The  physician  is  everywhere  welcome,  and  relief 
from  physical  suffering  is  now,  as  it  has  been  since 
the  time  of  the  great  Physician,  a  means  of  spirit- 
ual blessing.     The  development  of  the  use  of  this 


276  ORGANIZATION   AND   METHODS 

method  on  the  field  has  been  parallel  with  the 
development  in  medical  science  at  home.  Its 
application  does  not  need  special  description,  and 
its  advantages  and  usefulness  do  not  require  to 
be  proved.  Its  wonderful  development  and 
the  almost  numberless  doors  it  has  opened  are 
among  the  marvels  of  modern  missions.  The 
particular  methods  adopted  by  medical  mission- 
aries are  so  similar  to  those  of  physicians  at  home 
that  they  need  no  description.  There  is  the  pri- 
vate practice,  the  dispensary  with  its  hours  for 
consultation,  the  hospital  with  its  wards,  its  in- 
patients and  out-patients.  There  is  medical  treat- 
ment, surgical  treatment,  and  nursing.  All  the 
apparatus  and  arrangement  of  the  best  modern 
science  are  transferred  to  the  remotest  countries 
of  the  world,  and  brought  into  the  service  of  the 
Master  to  unlock  doors  and  open  hearts.  As  a 
rule,  medical  missionaries  are  careful,  while  im- 
proving every  opportunity  for  spiritual  counsel, 
not  to  make  it  appear  that  their  skill  is  condi- 
tioned on  the  acceptance  of  their  faith.  The 
counsel  to  "  sin  no  more  "  follows  the  cure  now, 
even  as  it  did  with  the  Saviour. 


EDUCATION  —  BIBLE    TRANSLATION  —  CHRISTIAN 
LITERATURE 

The  second  step  in  mission  work  is  the  devel- 
oping of  Christian  character  in  those  who  have 
accepted  Christ  as  their  Saviour.  How  much 
this  means  no  one  can  fully  appreciate  until  he 
has  seen  the  condition  of  non- Christian  commu- 
nities, and  even  of  communities  where  the  Chris- 
tian faith  is  acknowledged,  but  Christian  life  is 
understood  to  be  little,  if  anything,  more  than 
the  acceptance  of  certain  formulas  of  doctrine 
and  the  observance  of  certain  rites  of  worship. 
It  is  true  that  missionary  history  shows  a  num- 
ber of  instances  of  remarkable  development  of 
Christian  character,  even  among  those  who  only 
a  short  time  before  were  steeped  in  the  vices  of 
heathenism.  To  such  instances  is  undoubtedly 
due  in  considerable  degree  the  idea  that  all  that 
is  necessary  is  for  a  soul  to  accept  Christ  and  the 
rest  will  come  of  itself.  How  fallacious  this 
idea  is  will  be  easily  seen  by  a  careful  study  of 
Paul's  epistles,  especially  those  to  the  Corinthians, 
and  of  the  history  of  the  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sions, when  the  exhortations  of  Xavier  and  others 
were  not  followed  by  adequate  instruction  as  to 
what  true  Christian  life  implies.  It  is  generally 
277 


278      ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

recognized  that  the  heaviest  blow  Christianity 
has  ever  received  was  its  proclamation  as  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Roman  empire,  which  resulted  in 
the  bringing  into  the  Church  of  crowds  of  men 
and  women  utterly  ignorant  of  the  simplest  ele- 
ments of  practical  Christian  hfe.  Modern  Prot- 
estant missionaries  look  with  rejoicing,  indeed, 
and  yet  with  a  measure  of  dread,  upon  the  great 
influx  of  thousands  into  the  Church  in  India, 
simply  because  of  the  almost  absolute  impossi- 
bility of  giving  them  such  training  as  is  essential 
to  their  proper  growth  in  Christian  hfe.  The 
methods  adopted  for  the  solution  of  the  problem 
thus  presented  form  the  subject  of  this  chapter. 
Those  methods  may  be  included  under  three 
heads :  Education,  Bible  Translation  and  Distri- 
bution, and  a  Christian  Literature. 

Education.— The  term  is  used  here  in  the 
broadest  sense  to  include  all  instruction.  Much 
of  the  missionary  preaching,  especially  to  con- 
verts and  those  already  reached  with  the  gospel, 
is  distinctly  educational.  The  greatest  obstacle, 
probably,  that  the  missionary  has  to  meet  is  the 
difficulty  with  which  the  simplest  truths  of  Chris- 
tianity are  apprehended.  In  this  respect  there  is 
comparatively  little  difference  between  the  high- 
ly educated  Asiatic  and  the  ignorant  African. 
Many  of  the  precepts  of  Christ  are  so  entirely 
foreign  to  their  minds  that  they  need  the  fullest 
and  most  complete  explanation.  There  is  also 
need  of  training  the  mind  to  think,  the  very  pro- 
cesses of  consecutive  thought  being  unknown  in 
many  lands.  Thus  the  first  step  beyond  distinc- 
tive evangelism,  the  proclamation  of  the  gospel, 
is  the  explanation  of  that  gospel.  This  may  be 
in  the  form  of  expository  preaching  or  of  Bible 
classes.     Both    are   used    constantly   and   with 


EDUCATION  279 

great  effect.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  missionary  preaching  is  exposi- 
tory. The  set  discourse,  taking  up  some  theme 
and  developing  it,  which  is  so  common  in  Ameri- 
can pulpits,  is  used  comparatively  little  on  mis- 
sion ground,  except  in  the  later  stages  of  church 
life.  Bible  classes,  giving  opportunity  for  more 
informal  intercourse,  are  very  common,  and  the 
intervening  time  is  frequently  given  to  visiting 
and  conversation,  in  which  the  topic  is  continued 
and  the  lessons  are  applied  to  the  daily  life. 
Hand  in  hand  with  this  in  many  lands  is  instruc- 
tion in  reading.  The  illiteracy  of  mission  lands 
is  appalling,  and  the  missionary  soon  realizes 
that  he  can  hope  only  rarely  to  find  his  converts 
growing  into  a  true  Christian  character,  except 
as  they  are  able  to  read  the  Bible  for  themselves. 
In  not  a  few  cases  this  has  been  only  at  a  late 
stage,  for  the  language  first  had  to  be  reduced 
to  writing  and  a  translation  made,  but  in  most 
fields  to-day  that  stage  has  passed.  Some  por- 
tions at  least  of  Scripture  are  available  for  every 
people.  That  topic,  however,  will  be  treated 
below. 

Instruction,  Schools.— Taking  up  now  the 
subject  in  its  more  usual  sense,  education  as  a 
missionary  method  includes  the  whole  system  of 
schools,  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  university, 
corresponding  in  all  essential  details  to  those  in 
America.  The  occasion  for  the  establishment 
of  this  system  has  been  threefold:  (i)  the  in- 
struction of  children  of  families  brought  within 
the  influence  of  the  gospel,  that  they  might  grow 
up  into  Christian  knowledge  and  naturally  assume 
Christian  faith,  making  thus  the  foundation  of  an 
intelhgent  Christian  community;  (2)  the  prepa- 
ration of  native  preachers,  teachers,  and  helpers, 


2  50  ORGANIZATION   AND   METHODS 

competent  to  assist  the  missionaries  and  act  as 
leaders  themselves ;  (3)  the  general  diffusion  of 
information  based  upon  Christian  knowledge  as 
a  guard  and  a  weapon  against  the  surrounding 
false  faiths.  Of  these  the  first  two  would  be 
recognized  on  every  hand  as  entirely  within  the 
province  of  the  missionary,  and  they  have  been 
adopted  to  a  considerable  degree  even  by  those 
organizations  which  lay  most  stress  upon  the  dis- 
tinctively evangelistic  character  of  their  work. 
Children  must  be  taught,  first  to  read,  then  the 
other  elementary  branches  of  knowledge.  If  not 
by  the  missionary,  then  it  will  be  by  non-Chris- 
tians. Not  merely  the  welfare  of  the  children 
themselves,  but  the  future  of  the  Church,  make 
schools  for  them  necessary,  and  the  more  the 
community  develops,  the  higher  the  grade  of 
schools  required.  So,  also,  with  regard  to  the 
training  of  native  teachers  and  preachers.  This 
must  be  provided  if  the  Christian  community, 
and  especially  the  Christian  Church,  is  to  grow. 
That  training,  too,  must  be  substantial.  As  the 
missionary  leaves  the  preaching  to  the  native 
pastor,  it  will  not  do  to  have  the  difference  in 
grasp  of  thought  and  clearness  and  accuracy  of 
knowledge  too  great.  Moreover,  the  communi- 
ties themselves  and  the  men  will  increasingly  in- 
sist on  the  best  possible  equipment.  No  man  or 
woman  comes  under  the  influence  of  Christian 
thought  without  developing  intellectual  activity. 
That  activity  must  be  encouraged,  and  at  the 
same  time  directed,  if  it  is  to  be  kept  in  right 
and  safe  lines.  Any  restriction  in  the  education 
of  native  preachers,  such  that  they  cannot  keep 
up  with  the  demands  of  their  communities,  has 
always  proved  harmful. 

Secular  Education.— When,  however,  the 


EDUCATION  281 

schools  are  broadened  out  to  include  secular 
topics  of  the  highest  grade  for  the  benefit  of  the 
general  public,  the  question  assumes  another 
phase,  and  in  regard  to  this  there  has  been  much 
discussion.  Especially  is  this  true  in  regard  to 
India,  where  this  department  of  mission  work  has 
been  carried  further  than  in  any  other  land.  In 
the  early  history  of  the  American  Board  mis- 
sions there,  the  well-known  secretary  of  the  Board, 
Dr.  Rufus  Anderson,  visited  India  for  the  pur- 
pose of  investigating  the  question,  and  the  final 
decision  was  in  favor  of  the  schools.  The  argu- 
ment for  them  is  stated  so  clearly  in  the  action 
of  the  missionaries  in  Ceylon,  in  regard  to  the 
founding  of  a  college  as  early  as  1820,  that  we 
give  the  following  quotation  from  Anderson's 
"Missions  in  India,"  p.  147. 

"Those  unacquainted  with  the  existing  state 
of  things  in  India  cannot  understand  the  hin- 
drances to  the  reception  of  the  gospel  in  that 
country.  Not  one  of  those  evidences  on  which 
Christianity  rests  its  claims  at  home  can  be  fully 
apprehended  here.  The  internal  evidences  from 
the  excellence  and  sublimity  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures are  httle  understood,  and  the  external  evi- 
dences cannot  be  apprehended  at  all.  If  we 
speak  of  prophecies  which  have  been  fulfilled, 
the  history  of  the  times  when  they  were  spoken 
and  when  accompHshed  is  alike  unknown.  If 
of  miracles,  we  are  told  of  unnumbered  miracles 
vastly  more  marvelous  than  any  of  which  we  can 
speak.  Besides,  the  belief  that  miracles  con- 
stantly occur  even  now  hinders  their  being 
received  as  a  divine  attestation  to  the  truth  of 
Christianity.  Before  these  evidences  can  be  ap- 
preciated by  the  people  of  India,  they  must  first 
understand  something  of  history  and  enough  of 


282  ORGANIZATION   AND   METHODS 

true  science  at  least  to  know  what  a  miracle  is. 
They  must  learn  to  bring  their  credulous  belief 
in  everything  marvelous  to  the  test  of  reason,  and 
understand  the  difference  between  truth  and  fable, 
and  think,  compare,  reflect— things  which  the 
great  mass  in  India  never  do.  General  know- 
ledge must  be  disseminated.  It  might  easily  be 
shown  that  so  contrary  to  fact  are  the  principles 
of  geology,  natural  philosophy,  and  astronomy 
as  laid  down  in  their  sacred  books  that  even  a 
superficial  acquaintance  with  these  branches  of 
science  would  explode  their  systems  and  materi- 
ally affect  the  credit  of  the  books  which  contain 
them." 

Missionary  Colleges.  — Much  the  same  ar- 
gument has  been  applied  in  almost  every  country, 
and  as  a  result  there  has  been  established  in  the 
various  mission  fields  a  system  of  schools  of  all 
grades,  from  the  kindergarten  and  the  primary 
up  to  the  high  school,  the  college,  and  the  uni- 
versity. The  colleges  and  universities  are  in  a 
number  of  cases  not  under  the  immediate  control 
of  the  missions,  though  manned  to  a  considerable 
degree  by  missionaries  and  assisted  in  many  in- 
stances by  mission  funds.  The  work  they  have 
done  is  of  the  most  valuable.  The  influence 
exerted  by  Robert  College  at  Constantinople 
(which  is  entirely  independent  of  missionary 
connection,  although  its  founder  was  a  missionary 
and  its  faculty  are  in  fullest  sympathy  with  mis- 
sion work)  in  the  development  of  Christian  ideas 
in  the  Levant,  the  power  of  the  Imperial  Uni- 
versity at  Peking,  under  the  presidency  of  Dr. 
W.  A.  P.  Martin,  not  to  speak  of  the  service 
rendered  by  numerous  colleges  in  Africa,  India, 
Turkey,  cannot  be  tabulated,  or  even  estimated, 
now.     One  alone  of  the  whole  number  appears 


EDUCATION  283 

to  have  fallen  short  of  its  high  position— the 
Doshisha  University,  established  under  the  au- 
spices of  the  American  Board  in  Japan.  It  is 
referred  to  more  fully  in  the  chapter  on  Japan 
in  a  preceding  section  of  this  book.  It  is  suffi- 
cient to  say  here  that  the  position  taken  by  that 
institution  in  apparently  ignoring,  if  not  antago- 
nizing, a  truly  spiritual  Christianity  does  not  re- 
ceive the  support  of  either  the  Christians  or  the 
non-Christians  among  the  Japanese,  and  there  are 
even  at  this  writing  (1897)  indications  that  it 
will  be  changed  and  that  the  university  will 
resume  the  place  it  held  under  its  founder,  Joseph 
Neesima. 

Boarding-  and  Day-schools.— More  im- 
mediately important,  from  the  distinctively  mis- 
sionary standpoint,  even  than  the  colleges  are 
the  schools  under  the  direct  control  of  the  mis- 
sionaries in  the  mission  stations.  There  are  both 
day-schools  and  boarding-schools,  and  they  are 
graded  more  or  less  thoroughly,  according  to 
circumstances.  Their  number  is  very  large,  the 
American  Board  alone  having  1060,  while  the 
total  given  by  the  "  Missionary  Review  of  the 
World"  is  17,441,  and  this  can  scarcely  be  con- 
sidered complete.  In  the  lower  grades  the  tui- 
tion is  to  a  considerable  extent  free,  although  an 
effort  is  made  everywhere  to  get  some  financial 
return  from  each  scholar,  both  that  the  expense 
of  the  school  may  be  lessened  and  that  the  prin- 
ciple of  self-support  may  be  impressed  upon  the 
people.  That  topic  will  be  referred  to  more 
fully  in  the  next  chapter.  The  value  of  these 
schools  is  seen  in  many  ways.  The  Christian 
influence  over  the  scholars  has  been  extended 
through  them  to  the  homes ;  the  awakened  intel- 
lect of  those  who  have  grown  up  to  positions  of 


284  ORGANIZATION  AND   METHODS 

influence  in  the  communities  has  been  a  power 
of  which  Americans  in  their  own  land  can  have 
but  a  faint  conception,  even  when  it  has  not 
been  attended  by  conversion,  and  when  it  has 
been  so  attended  it  has  been  all  the  greater. 
These  influences  for  good  have  been  increased 
in  the  higher  grades,  and  especially  in  the  board- 
ing-schools, where  the  pupils  have  not  merely 
come  under  the  missionary's  instruction,  but  have 
felt  the  example  of  his  life.  The  power  of^  a 
Christian  home  in  its  silent  influence  is  very 
great  and  is  manifest  in  the  altered  condition  of 
home  life  throughout  the  countries  where  these 
pupils  Hve. 

Theological  Instruction.— Another  point 
to  be  mentioned  is  the  service  of  these  schools 
in  the  preparation  of  those  who  are  to  be  the  in- 
structors and  leaders  of  the  people.  The  neces- 
sity of  raising  up  a  native  agency,  to  use  the 
technical  term  employed  by  the  mission  boards, 
has  already  been  referred  to.  It  is  sufficient  to 
note  the  fact  that  from  these  schools,  sometimes 
after  passing  through  the  various  grades,  have 
come  for  the  most  part  the  men  and  women  who 
are  to-day  the  most  prominent  factors  in  molding 
the  life,  intellectual,  moral,  and  spiritual,  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  as  well  as  of  the  islands  of  the  Pa- 
cific, South  America  and  Mexico,  and  even  to  a 
degree  of  Europe.  They  are  not  only  doing  a 
work  that  the  missionary  could  not  do,  but  fre- 
quently do  the  work  he  has  done  better  than  he. 
There  are  few,  if  any,  missionaries  who  can 
preach  as  effectively  as  many  native  pastors  do. 
There  are  multitudes,  not  merely  of  men,  but  of 
women,  whose  ability  to  instruct  is  not  surpassed 
by  the  best-trained  teachers  in  our  own  land, 
while  their  comprehension  of  the  needs  of  their 


EDUCATION  285 

scholars,  their  pecuHar  difficulties,  temptations, 
abilities,  is  such  as  no  foreigner  can  have.  The 
training  of  these  has  been  for  the  most  part  in 
high  or  normal  schools  and  in  the  theological 
classes  or  seminaries.  In  the  more  completely 
organized  missions,  where  the  work  has  been 
carried  on  for  a  number  of  years,  these  have 
their  regular  faculties  and  courses  of  instruction  ; 
in  newer  fields,  and  where  the  means  of  inter- 
communication are  not  of  the  best,  the  instruc- 
tion has  been  more  informal.  The  development 
in  general  has  corresponded  very  closely  to  that 
in  America,  where  in  the  early  days  men  studied 
for  the  ministry,  not  in  seminaries,  but  privately 
with  pastors. 

Girls'  Schools.— This  feature  of  mission 
education  needs  special  notice,  for  it  has  prob- 
ably wrought  more  change  in  the  life  of  mission 
lands  than  any  other  one  thing  aside  from  the 
direct  preaching  of  the  gospel.  Just  as  the  deg- 
radation of  woman  has  been  one  of  the  greatest 
obstacles  to  the  spread  of  the  gospel,  so  the  ele- 
vation of  woman  has  given  an  impetus  to  Chris- 
tian work  of  the  utmost  value.  In  this  elevation 
there  has  been  no  more  potent  factor  than  the 
girls'  schools,  established  in  every  mission.  These 
are  of  different  kinds,  according  to  the  pecuHar 
conditions  of  different  countries.  Where  the 
social  customs  permit,  in  the  lower  schools  boys 
and  girls  are  together,  but  in  the  higher  grades 
they  are  kept  separate,  as  a  rule.  The  credit  for 
the  first  girls'  school  of  modern  missions  carried 
on  by  women  specially  appointed  belongs,  so 
far  as  we  can  learn,  to  the  wife  of  the  Rev.  W.  G. 
Schauffler,  D.D.,  of  Constantinople,  who  as  Miss 
Mary  E.  Reynolds  went  to  Smyrna  in  1832.  This 
was  not  the  first  instruction  for  girls,  but  it  initi- 


286  ORGANIZATION   AND   METHODS 

ated  the  work  which  has  been  carried  on  since  by 
every  missionary  society,  and  has  resulted  in  such 
colleges  as  those  at  Constantinople,  Kobe,  and 
elsewhere,  but  of  which  space  forbids  detailed 
mention. 

Industrial  Schools.— These  are  a  distinctly 
modern  development,  although  industrial  educa- 
tion has  had  a  place  in  missions  for  a  long  time. 
It  originated  in  most  instances  in  the  desire  to 
enable  scholars  to  earn  something  toward  their 
support  by  manual  labor,  but  it  has  broadened 
out  to  include  education  in  those  Hnes  of  work 
unknown  in  other  lands  and  which  form  so  large 
a  part  of  the  successful  enterprise  of  America 
and  Europe.  Among  the  employments  in  which 
instruction  is  given  are,  for  boys  and  men,  car- 
pentering, including  cabinet-  and  tool-making, 
farming,  blacksmithing,  printing,  binding ;  for 
girls  and  women,  cooking,  sewing,  embroidery, 
etc.  So  far  as  the  work  has  as  yet  gone  the  re- 
sults have  been  very  satisfactory,  both  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  idea  of  self-help  and  in  the 
introduction  into  the  communities  of  improved 
methods  of  industrial  work. 

General  Results.— There  are  many  topics 
that  deserve  special  reference,  but  limited  space 
forbids.  Among  these  are  the  early  schools  for 
missionaries  in  Alexandria,  the  instruction  given 
by  the  missionaries  of  the  early  centuries,  and 
the  schools  established  by  Roman  Catholics  in 
the  medieval  and  post-Reformation  periods,  and 
especially  of  later  days,  many  of  which  have  done 
a  noble  work  and  had  a  great  influence  for  good, 
the  presence  of  mission  schools  in  the  sur- 
rounding communities  stirring  them  to  similar 
enterprise.  Each  topic  is  one  of  great  interest, 
but  we  can  give  here  only  a  general  survey  of 


/ 


EDUCATION  287 

the  effect  of  the  system  of  missionary  education 
on  the  development  of  Christian  character.  This 
has  been  seen  in  a  quickening  of  intellectual 
power,  making  possible  a  clearer  apprehension  of 
the  truths  of  the  gospel,  not  merely  as  truths,  but 
in  their  relation  to  every-day  Hfe ;  a  broadening 
of  sympathy  as  the  horizon  of  observation  has 
extended ;  a  breaking  down  of  the  power  of  false 
faiths  as  their  weakness  and  fallacies  have  been 
demonstrated ;  a  making  it  possible  for  the  con- 
verts to  give  a  reason  for  their  faith  sufficiently 
clear  and  strong  to  establish  them  against  temp- 
tation and  to  convince  those  with  whom  they 
come  in  contact — all  combining  so  to  estabhsh 
the  foundations  of  a  Christian  community  that 
its  growth  shall  be  constant  and  from  within,  in- 
dependent of  external  influences. 

Bible  Translation  and  Distribution.— 
The  preparation  of  the  Bible  in  form  intelligible 
to  non-Christian  people  is  the  first  step  in  mis- 
sionary work.  The  use  of  the  Bible  belongs 
chiefly  to  the  second  period  of  the  development 
of  Christian  character.  Among  such  peoples  as 
the  Armenians,  Greeks,  Nestorians,  Copts,  and 
in  such  countries  as  Spain,  Mexico,  Brazil,  it  has 
been  one  of  the  most  important  evangelizing 
agencies,  and  wherever  communities  of  Chris- 
tians have  been  established  and  developed  it 
becomes  an  evangelizing  agency  of  great  value 
among  those  who,  by  one  means  or  another,  have 
become  somewhat  acquainted  with  Christian 
truth.  Its  great  service  has  been  seen  through- 
out the  history  of  missions  in  the  building  up  of 
Christian  character,  and  the  work  of  any  mission 
has  been  substantial  and  permanent  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  attention  paid  to  the  use  of  it 
in  the  instruction  given,  whether  from  the  pulpit 


288  ORGANIZATION   AND    METHODS 

or  in  schools,  and  its  use  in  private.  The  initial 
influences  of  Christianity  have  all  through  the 
history  of  the  Church  been  chiefly  personal,  the 
power  of  the  Spirit  making  itself  manifest  in 
human  life  and  through  human  speech.  This 
has  opened  the  way  to  the  more  perfect  and 
complete  revelation  of  God  to  the  soul  through 
His  Word.  This  does  not  mean  that  there  have 
not  been  many  remarkable  instances  of  the  way 
in  which  the  Bible  has  been  the  means  of  directly 
reaching  the  heart  without  the  intervention  of 
any  human  agency,  but  that  its  work  in  this  Hne 
has  been  less  than  that  in  the  later  stage  of  the 
development  of  Christian  character. 

The  history  of  the  preparation  of  the  different 
versions  of  the  Bible  is  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing departments  of  the  study  of  missions.  It  re- 
veals an  amount  of  intellectual  ability,  a  patience 
of  research,  a  knowledge  of  language,  of  human 
nature  and  the  workings  of  the  human  mind,  and, 
above  all,  an  understanding  of  the  deep  things 
of  God,  which  would  give  complete  proof,  if 
proof  were  needed,  of  the  direct  influence  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  on  those  who  prepared  them.  The 
early  ages  offered  some  remarkable  instances, 
but  the  great  advance  has  been  during  the  past 
century.  Carey,  Judson,  Morrison,  Hepburn, 
Van  Dyck,  Schauffler,  Riggs,  Moffat,  are  only  a 
few  of  the  many  names  which  will  occur  to  any 
one  familiar  with  missions.  The  story  of  the 
methods  they  have  adopted  to  gain  a  correct  idea 
of  the  words  of  the  native  languages,  of  the  way 
in  which  in  numerous  instances  they  have  really 
made  those  languages,  furnishing  not  merely 
characters,  but  syntax,  would  fill  a  volume  in  it- 
self. Not  less  interesting  would  be  the  detailed 
statement  of  the  way  in  which  the  Bible  has  been 


tDUCATION  289 

furnished  to  the  people :  the  printing,  binding, 
and  distribution  by  colporteurs  and  in  bookshops, 
by  travelers,  by  merchants,  occasionally  by  means 
absolutely  unknown.  The  great  Bible  societies — 
the  British  and  Foreign,  the  American,  the  Na- 
tional Society  of  Scotland,  besides  many  others 
in  Europe — have  done  a  noble  work  and  one  that, 
if  less  noticeable  in  some  respects,  is  not  less  im- 
portant than  that  of  what  are  known  more  dis- 
tinctively as  missionary  societies. 

Free  Distribution.  — One  fact  deserves  spe- 
cial note.  The  experience  of  missionaries  in  every 
land  has  been  that  the  free  gift  of  the  Scriptures 
not  only  fails,  as  a  rule,  to  accomphsh  good,  but 
does  harm.  Men  value  a  possession  in  propor- 
tion as  it  has  cost  them  something.  The  result  is 
that  grants  direct  to  the  people  have  been  very  few 
in  number.  Where  the  word  is  used  in  the  reports 
of  the  societies,  it  means  usually  grants  to  other 
organizations  for  distribution  as  they  may  judge 
best.  There  has,  however,  risen  a  difficulty. 
The  cost  of  pubHcation  of  the  Bible  in  the  lan- 
guages of  mission  fields  is  very  great.  Were  a 
price  to  be  put  upon  the  book  which  would  cover 
that  cost,  it  would  place  it  beyond  the  means  of 
the  great  mass  of  purchasers.  The  Bible  socie- 
ties have  therefore  adopted  the  custom  on  mission 
ground  of  fixing  a  price  for  the  cheaper  editions 
such  that  the  poorest  by  a  little  effort  can  secure 
one.  In  this  price  the  market  wages,  cost  of 
living,  etc.,  are  all  considered.  The  balance  is 
the  society's  gift  to  the  people  and  constitutes  a 
most  important  item  in  the  cost  of  management. 

The  chief  Bible  work  on  mission  ground  being 
carried  on  by  the  three  societies  mentioned  above, 
they  have  come  to  a  general  agreement  as  to  the 
pubHcation  of  versions  and  the  occupation  of 


290  ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

territory,  so  as  to  interfere  as  little  as  possible 
with  one  another.  In  the  conduct  of  their  work 
they  are  represented  by  agents,  who  are  in  charge 
of  extended  territories.  These  supervise  the 
preparation  of  translations  and  the  printing  and 
binding  of  the  various  editions.  The  distribution 
is  chiefly  by  colporteurs  or  booksellers  under  the 
immediate  direction  of  these  agents.  In  most 
cases  the  colporteurs  carry  only  Scriptures,  but 
occasionally  they  have  distributed  also  general 
Christian  literature. 

Christian  Literature.— Scarcely  inferior  to 
education,  or  even  the  Bible,  as  a  method  of 
developing  Christian  character,  is  a  Christian 
literature.  Indeed,  some  missionaries  have  felt 
that  if  these  others  were  not  supplemented  by 
this  not  only  would  they  fail  of  accomplishing 
their  best  good,  but  might  even  in  a  degree  work 
harm.  An  illustration  of  the  danger  of  even 
Bible  study  apart  from  education  and  a  Christian 
literature  is  found  in  the  development  of  certain 
sects  in  Russia,  where  the  wildest  interpretations 
are  given  to  prophecy  and  the  most  fanciful  ex- 
planations are  given  even  of  the  words  of  Christ. 
The  forms  in  which  Christian  literature  is  pro- 
vided for  the  people  are,  in  general,  tracts, 
commentaries,  books  of  devotion,  hymnals,  etc. 
The  more  general  type  of  book  has  been  greatly 
desired,  but  in  the  pressure  both  upon  the  funds 
of  the  societies  and  the  time  and  strength  of  the 
missionaries  only  that  has  been  done  which  was 
immediately  and  absolutely  necessary.  The  most 
useful  form  in  the  earlier  stages  is  that  of  tracts. 
These  have  done  an  amount  of  good  which  can- 
not be  measured,  and  the  only  regret  has  been 
that  the  supply  has  been  circumscribed.  In  the 
later    stages   commentaries,    Bible    dictionaries, 


EDUCATION  291 

books  on  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  histories, 
biographies,  become  not  only  useful,  but  neces- 
sary, and  have  been  furnished  to  a  limited  degree 
by  the  assistance  of  the  tract  societies  of  England 
and  America. 


VI 


CHURCH   FORMATION  — SELF-SUPPORT— SOCIAL 
DEVELOPMENT 

The  solution  of  the  third  problem,  how  to 
develop  and  extend  the  work  commenced  by 
evangelism  and  solidified  by  education,  is  found 
in  the  organization  of  the  native  church.  The 
term  is  used  here,  in  a  general  rather  than  a 
technical  sense,  to  include  all  the  forms  of  organ- 
ized churches  established  on  mission  fields  by  the 
various  societies.  We  note  here  some  character- 
istics of  all,  and  some  of  the  more  immediate 
problems  to  be  solved  and  difficulties  to  be  over- 
come by  each,  whatever  its  ecclesiastical  organi- 
zation or  relation  to  the  home  churches. 

A  Native  Church.— This  is  a  church  whose 
officers  as  well  as  members  are  native  to  the  land 
where  it  exists  and  whose  organization  and  char- 
acter are  in  harmony  with  the  peculiar  needs  and 
capabihties  of  the  people.  It  may  or  may  not  be 
organically  connected  with  the  church  whose  mis- 
sionaries have  organized  it.  The  essential  fea- 
ture which  marks  it  as  a  native  church  is  that  it 
is,  at  least  to  a  considerable  degree,  independent 
of  foreign  control,  self-directing,  self-propagat- 
ing. If  we  look  through  the  history  of  missions, 
292 


THE  NATIVE  CHURCH  293 

we  find  that  it  was  the  rule  in  the  early  centuries 
to  establish  such  churches.  The  work  of  the 
apostles  and  their  immediate  successors  was  to 
raise  up  and  develop  in  each  community  a  church 
homogeneous  to  that  community.  The  same 
rule  held  to  a  considerable  degree  in  the  work  of 
the  early  fathers.  Thus  arose  the  Armenian 
Church,  the  Abyssinian  Church,  the  Coptic 
Church,  the  Nestorian  Church,  etc.  True,  some 
particular  dogma  was,  or  seemed  to  be,  that 
which  differentiated  each  of  these  from  every 
other;  yet,  after  all,  the  dogma  was  largely  the 
result  of  the  native  character  of  the  church  as 
well  as  the  cause  of  its  separation.  So,  also,  the 
work  of  Augustine  among  the  Saxons,  of  Ulfilas 
among  the  Goths,  of  Ansgar  among  the  Danes, 
resulted  in  the  building  up  of  churches  which, 
while  under  the  general  control  of  the  Roman 
Church,  were  still  to  a  considerable  degree  in- 
dependent of  minute  direction  from  Rome. 
They  had  their  own  priests,  their  own  character. 
With  the  development  of  the  monastic  orders, 
however,  there  came  a  change.  The  missionaries 
of  the  middle  ages  and  of  the  post-Reformation 
period  were  members  of  these  orders  and  carried 
into  their  mission  work  the  peculiar  ideas  of  ec- 
clesiastical rule  held  by  them.  The  result  was 
that  the  distinctly  native  character  of  the  mission 
church  was  to  a  considerable  degree  lost.  As 
promising  converts  appeared  they  were  sent  back 
to  Europe  for  training  in  the  orders  before  they 
were  allowed  to  exercise  their  priestly  functions 
among  the  people,  and  when  they  came  back 
they  were  less  Indian,  Chinese,  Japanese,  than 
they  were  Roman,  whether  Itahan,  French,  or 
Spanish.  Of  late  years  there  has  been  something 
of  a  change,  and  the  present  Roman  Catholic 


^94  ORGANIZATION   AND   METHODS 

work,  especially  that  in  Africa,  appears   to  be 
more  native  in  its  character. 

Modern  Protestant  missions  have  from  the 
very  first  maintained  that  the  churches,  whether 
general  or  local,  which  they  founded  must  be 
distinctly  native  in  their  character  if  the  work 
they  are  to  do  in  self-development  and  extension 
is  to  be  of  a  permanent  quahty.  It  has  gener- 
ally, if  not  universally,  been  acknowledged  that 
Western  ideas  are  in  some  important  respects 
quite  different  from  those  of  the  Asiatic  or  Afri- 
can. It  has  also  been  recognized  that  the 
present  position  of  the  Church  in  Europe  and 
America  is  the  result  of  the  development,  some- 
times slow  and  often  very  uneven,  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  different  countries.  From  this 
the  argument  has  been  easy  that  if  the  church 
or  churches  in  China,  Japan,  India,  Turkey, 
Africa,  Micronesia,  etc.,  are  to  become  able  to 
do  for  themselves  and  their  surrounding  commu- 
nities what  these  churches  have  done  and  are 
doing,  they  must  develop  in  much  the  same  way. 
It  is  to  be  confessed  that  this  idea  has  not  always 
been  followed  out  with  equal  clearness  and  con- 
sistency. There  have  been  not  a  few  cases  in 
which  American  or  English  or  German  forms  of 
church  government  and  statements  of  doctrinal 
belief  have  been  superimposed  upon  the  native 
churches,  in  rather  arbitrary  fashion.  Yet  that 
has  not  been  the  rule,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether 
even  in  those  cases  there  was  a  clear  perception 
as  to  what  was  being  done.  It  is  probably  fair 
to  say  that  Protestant  missionaries  of  every  board 
and  from  every  land  have  held  to  the  principle 
that  the  organization  of  the  native  church  should 
to  a  considerable  degree,  if  not  entirely,  be  the 
natural  outgrowth  of  the   pecuHar   needs   and 


THE  NATIVE  CHURCH  295 

represent  the  capabilities  of  the  native  communi- 
ties. Even  in  the  case  of  those  churches  which 
emphasize  most  strongly  the  principle  of  organic 
unity,  and  claim  that  the  Church  is  one,  and 
that  the  various  branches  are  integral  parts  of 
that  one,  there  is  a  large  liberty  exercised  in  the 
conduct  of  the  branches.  The  principle  of  in- 
dividual development  dominates  even  that  of  the 
organic  unity  of  the  Church,  and  there  is  no 
better-recognized  truth  on  the  mission  field  than 
that  of  the  diversity  of  gifts. 

Peculiar  Needs.— The  question,  then, 
comes.  What  are  these  peculiar  needs  that  have 
to  be  considered  in  determining  the  specific  char- 
acter of  the  native  church?  The  general  office 
of  the  Church  is  undoubtedly  the  same  in  foreign 
lands  as  at  home— the  spiritual  instruction  of  the 
members,  the  administration  of  the  sacraments, 
the  proclamation  of  the  gospel  so  that  all  may 
know  of  the  offer  of  salvation.  The  peculiar 
needs  arise  from  the  peculiar  position  and  com- 
position of  the  Church.  They  vary  somewhat  in 
different  lands,  yet  in  general  have  much  the 
same  characteristics.  The  native  church  is 
located  in  the  midst  of  a  community  overwhelm- 
ingly opposed  to  it  and  determined  on  its  over- 
throw. Reference  has  been  made  to  three 
classes  of  people  in  mission  fields :  those  easily 
attracted  to  Christianity,  those  bitterly  opposed 
to  it,  and  those— the  great  majority — indifferent, 
yet  easily  excited  to  hostility  when  they  see  their 
cherished  customs  endangered.  In  the  early 
mission  life  persecution  is  chiefly  by  the  family 
or  by  those  of  the  second  class.  As,  however, 
the  number  of  Christians  becomes  larger  and 
they  seem  likely  to  prove  a  serious  disturbing 
element,  the  indifferentism  of  the  great  mass  is 


296  ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

very  apt  to  become  active  opposition.  The 
Church  must  meet  this,  hold  its  own,  and,  more 
than  that,  manifest  its  ability  to  gain  ground  by 
disarming  opposition  and  attracting  to  itself.  Its 
organization,  therefore,  must  be  such  as  will  bring 
into  use,  and  the  best  possible  use,  every  available 
element  of  strength.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
composition  of  the  Church  includes  to  a  consider- 
able degree  the  more  ignorant.  It  is  as  true 
now  as  nineteen  centuries  ago  that  "not  many 
wise  men"  are  called.  It  is  still  to  the  poor 
that  the  gospel  is  principally  preached.  It  is 
not  therefore  to  be  inferred  that  the  churches  are 
weak.  They  are  not,  and  they  have  not  been 
at  any  period  of  their  history.  They  are  strong, 
but  are  better  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  sHng  than 
the  sword.  If  they  are  to  use  swords,  they  must 
make  their  own  and  use  them  in  their  own  way. 
Form  of  Organization.— In  the  effort  to 
meet  these  needs,  missionaries  have  as  a  rule 
adopted  as  simple  a  form  of  organization  as  pos- 
sible. In  many  cases  there  has  been  at  first 
really  no  organization  at  all.  The  few  believers 
in  a  city,  town,  or  village  have  been  gathered 
together  by  the  missionary,  either  resident  or  on 
a  visit,  and  formed  into  a  sort  of  class.  Their 
church-membership  has  not  been  enrolled  in  any 
church  records  as  they  have  sat  down  to  the 
Lord's  table,  nor  has  it  been  entered  on  the  lists 
of  some  home  church  to  emphasize  the  great 
brotherhood  of  believers.  As  the  number  has 
enlarged  a  regular  organization  has  been  formed. 
Usually  this  has  been  in  some  city,  and  the  httle 
groups  of  Christians  in  the  region  around  have 
been  enrolled  with  it.  In  this  there  has  been  a 
great  variety  of  practice.  Some  missions  have 
followed  the  custom  of  organizing  a  church  only 


THE  NATIVE   CHURCH  297 

as  there  was  some  one,  missionary  or  native,  to 
act  as  pastor,  or  at  least  be  a  regular  preacher. 
Here  again  the  various  ecclesiastical  habits  of 
missionaries  have  guided  their  action  to  a  con- 
siderable degree,  each  following  the  methods 
with  which  he  was  most  famihar,  at  least  in  the 
beginning.  Later  on  there  has  been,  as  stated 
above,  more  of  a  disposition  to  follow  out  the 
hues  that  seem  best  adapted  to  the  circumstances. 
The  result  is  that  we  find  on  the  mission  field 
to-day  all  the  different  forms  of  church  organiza- 
tion and  government  which  we  have  at  home. 
The  Episcopalian  missions  have  their  bishops  and 
full  list  of  clergy,  and  the  Church  in  Japan  is 
an  organic  part  of  that  in  England  or  America. 
The  Methodists  have  their  conferences,  and  the 
Presbyterians  their  presbyteries  and  synods,  all 
represented  officially  in  the  General  Conferences 
or  General  AssembHes  with  which  the  mission- 
aries themselves  are  connected.  The  Congrega- 
tional societies,  including  the  Baptist,  emphasiz- 
ing, as  their  denominations  do,  the  independence 
of  the  local  church,  establish  no  organic  con- 
nection with  the  home  churches.  It  must  not, 
however,  be  inferred  that  in  the  case  of  the 
others  there  is  any  effort  to  exercise  minute  con- 
trol. The  peculiar  circumstances  are  invariably 
recognized  and  large  liberty  assured  even  while 
there  is  close  fellowship.  Bishop  Crowther  on 
the  Niger  was  independent  in  his  diocese  to  a 
degree  that  could  not  be  affirmed  of  the  Bishop 
of  London  in  his,  and  it  is  seldom  that  a  General 
Conference  or  General  Assembly  undertakes  to 
override  the  mature  decision  of  a  native  confer- 
ence or  presbytery.  The  result  has  been  that  it 
would  not  by  any  means  be  always  easy  for  a 
strict  denominationalist  at  home  to  recognize  his 


298  ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

own  church  on  the  mission  fields.  Congrega- 
tional unions  come  very  near  being  presbyteries 
and  presbyteries  conferences,  while  occasionally 
there  is  to  be  found  a  Presby-gational-methodism 
that  absolutely  defies  tabulation.  A  certain  mis- 
sion once  called  together  the  native  preachers 
and  lay  representatives  of  the  churches  and  asked 
them  to  state  frankly  what  form  of  organization 
they  thought  would  be  best  adapted  to  their 
needs.  The  result  was  a  curious  mixture  of 
systems,  which,  nevertheless,  has  worked  well. 

The  fact,  however,  of  the  existence  side  by 
side  of  so  many  different  forms  has  occasioned 
not  a  httle  confusion  and  some  friction.  There 
is  an  increasing  tendency  toward  uniting  in  one 
body  those  whose  general  forms  of  organization 
are  the  same  or  similar.  Thus  the  native  churches 
connected  with  the  Presbyterian  and  Reformed 
missions  in  Japan  have  united  in  the  "  United 
Church  of  Christ  in  Japan."  A  union  of  the 
Methodist  churches  in  that  country  is  also  under 
consideration,  and  there  are  similar  movements 
elsewhere.  There  has  been  a  good  deal  said 
about  a  Native  Church  of  India  to  include  all  the 
different  denominations,  but  that  has  not  as  yet 
commended  itself  to  the  best  judgment  of  either 
missionaries  or  natives.  The  question  of  denomi- 
nationalism  is  one  by  no  means  easily  solved. 

Missionaries  and  the  Church.— The  rela- 
tion held  by  the  missionary  to  the  native  church 
varies  greatly,  both  in  different  countries  and  at 
different  stages  of  the  work  in  the  same  field.  In 
the  earlier  stages  he  has  been  almost  invariably 
practically  a  bishop.  As  the  church  has  grown 
he  has  held  the  office  of  pastor,  associate,  adviser, 
and  in  some  cases  has  dropped  out  of  any  official 
relation  to  the  church  at  all,  being  little  more  than 


THE   NATIVE  CHURCH  2gg 

a  resident  counselor,  whose  advice  may  or  may 
not  be  sought,  and  if  sought  may  or  may  not  be 
followed,  at  least  in  matters  purely  ecclesiastical. 
In  the  management  of  temporal  matters  involving 
the  use  of  funds,  the  general,  if  not  universal, 
practice  is  that  the  missionaries  should  have  a 
controlHng  voice,  or  at  least  a  veto  power,  in  the 
appropriation  of  funds.  With  the  exception  of 
the  difficulties  arising  from  this  question,  the  re- 
lation between  the  missionaries  and  the  native 
churches  has  been  and  is,  with  very  rare  excep- 
tions, most  cordial.  The  missions  have  retained 
their  own  organization  for  the  management  of 
their  distinctive  work,  but  individuals  have  in- 
variably been  officially  connected  with  the  native 
ecclesiastical  bodies,  and  their  position  in  these 
has  been  not  only  useful,  but  pleasant. 

Doctrinal  Basis.  — In  general  the  doctrinal 
basis  of  the  native  church  corresponds  to  the  be- 
lief of  the  missionaries  connected  with  its  organi- 
zation. In  this  respect,  however,  as  in  regard  to 
the  ecclesiastical  form,  there  is  little  effort  to  force 
Western  forms  of  creed  upon  the  new  converts. 
The  great  truths  of  sin,  salvation,  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  are  \vrought  into  the  early  life  of  the 
church  and  embodied  in  statements  more  or  less 
detailed,  according  to  the  ability  of  the  unedu- 
cated to  understand  them.  In  the  preparation  of 
the  native  ministry  there  is  more  care  to  be  com- 
plete, and  yet,  even  there  in  the  earlier  stages  of 
mission  life,  it  has  seldom  been  thought  best  to 
insist  upon  acceptance  of  the  minutiae  of  the  sys- 
tems of  theological  thought  prevalent  in  churches 
of  many  centuries  of  growth.  On  this  topic  one 
fact  only  needs  special  mention.  There  has  been 
not  a  little  talk,  especially  among  or  in  regard  to 
the  Japanese  churches,  that  they  need  a  Japanese 


300      ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

theology,  and  various  efforts  have  been  made  to 
evolve  Japanese  creeds,  some  of  them  arousing 
not  a  little  apprehension  because  of  their  failure 
to  insist  upon  certain  dogmas  familiar  to  the 
West.  In  regard  to  this  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that 
every  Christian  country  and  church  in  the  West 
has  worked  out  its  own  system,  under  what  it  has 
felt  to  be  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  an 
examination  of  the  history  of  missions  will  reveal 
just  as  clear  a  guidance  in  the  councils  of  the 
native  preachers  and  teachers  as  was  ever  mani- 
fest in  the  convocations  or  synods  with  which 
European  and  American  Christians  are  famihar. 
Human  nature  being  the  same  in  Asia  as  in 
America,  it  is  scarcely  surprising  that  acute  minds 
in  the  Orient  question  for  themselves  the  state- 
ments received  from  the  Occident,  and  the  Holy 
Spirit,  not  being  confined  by  degrees  of  latitude 
and  longitude,  may  be  expected  to  exercise  as 
potent  an  influence  in  Tokio  as  in  Westminster. 
Self-support. — The  prime  essential  to  healthy 
development  is  responsibiHty.  Responsibility 
involves  independence,  and  there  can  be  no 
genuine  independence  without  self-support.  Any 
organization,  secular  or  religious,  that  depends 
upon  somebody  else  to  pay  the  bills  for  its  or- 
dinary expenses  is  not  only  under  bonds  to  do 
as  that  same  body  wishes,  but  loses  one  of  the 
chief  incentives  to  aggressive  and  yet  prudent 
action.  This  general  principle  is  nowhere  more 
forcibly  illustrated  than  in  the  history  of  missions. 
The  apostles  had  no  funds  on  which  to  draw  to 
build  chapels  and  pay  evangelists,  pastors,  and 
teachers.  The  result  was  that  each  community 
looked  after  itself.  What  it  could  afford  it  had  ; 
what  it  could  not  afford  it  did  without.  So  also 
did  the  early  missionaries.    The  medieval  monks 


THE  NATIVE  CHURCH  301 

introduced  a  new  system.  Receiving  their  own 
support  from  the  monasteries  and  churches  that 
sent  them  out,  they  appealed  to  them  to  do  for 
the  converts  what  they  could  not  do  for  them- 
selves. Thus  arose  the  buildings  that  have 
marked  the  progress  of  Roman  Catholic  missions 
in  various  lands.  As  has  already  been  said, 
wherever  native  clergy  were  appointed  they  were 
trained  chiefly  in  Europe,  or,  if  not  there,  in  these 
establishments,  and  drew  their  support  from  the 
general  fund. 

Protestant  missionaries  have,  as  a  rule,  entered 
upon  their  work  impressed  with  the  idea  of 
the  necessity,  as  well  as  advantage,  of  the  con- 
comitants of  church  work  with  which  they  were 
famihar:  preaching  places,  school-houses,  and 
especially  a  regular  native  agency,  including 
preachers,  teachers,  colporteurs,  and  helpers  of 
various  kinds. 

From  the  first  there  has  been  the  recognition 
of  the  principle  that  all  these  ought  to  be  fur- 
nished by  the  people  themselves.  There  has  been, 
however,  the  practical  difficulty  that  they  could 
not  furnish  them,  at  least  in  many  cases.  Should 
they  therefore  go  without  them?  It  was  a  most 
perplexing  question.  The  missionaries,  entering 
a  new  country,  made  their  headquarters  in  the 
cities,  from  necessity  in  such  countries  as  China, 
from  choice  in  Turkey.  They  desired  to  gather 
audiences,  and  opened  preaching  services,  at  first 
usually  in  their  own  dwellings.  As  the  number 
of  attendants  increased,  a  larger  place  became 
necessary.  The  believers  were  neither  numerous 
nor  strong  enough  to  meet  the  expense.  In  a 
village  they  might,  and  often  did,  erect  one  by 
contributing  labor.  In  the  city  this  was  impos- 
sible.    With  the  wealthy  constituency  at  home, 


302 


ORGANIZATION   AND  METHODS 


perfectly  able  to  give,  it  seemed  almost  wrong 
not  to  furnish  a  chapel.  It  was  done.  Then 
came  the  necessity  of  preachers,  not  merely  for 
the  chapel,  but  for  the  evangelistic  work.  Doors 
were  opening  on  every  hand.  The  one  cry  was 
for  workers.  The  converts  were  scanned  care- 
fully, anxiously.  Bright  young  men  and  women, 
apparently  fitted  for  the  work,  were  selected  for 
special  training.  Whenever  they  were  able  to 
pay  for  the  education  they  did,  but  most  were 
poor,  and,  coming  from  homes  with  Httle  sym- 
pathy for  Christianity,  could  not.  If  they  were 
to  be  educated  at  all  they  must  be  supported. 
Then  came  the  question  of  employment.  The 
preacher  in  the  city  chapel  or  church,  with  a 
good  audience  but  a  small  community  of  Chris- 
tians, must  rely  upon  the  missions  unless  he  could 
live  on  even  less  than  his  people  and  work  for 
his  own  support.  Was  this  wise?  Would  it  not 
be  better  for  him  to  be  free  from  such  harass- 
ments  and  give  his  time  entirely  to  study  and 
pastoral  and  evangelistic  work?  So  also  of  the 
teachers  and  evangelists  who  went  out  into  new 
sections,  where  they  could  not  rely  upon  those 
to  whom  they  went  for  support.  Numerous 
other  illustrations  might  be  given. 

Foreign  Assistance.  —There  grew  up  thus 
a  custom,  which  in  many  cases  became  almost 
law,  that  until  the  native  church  became  large 
and  strong  its  expenses  for  buildings,  preachers, 
teachers,  etc.,  should  be  provided,  at  least  in 
good  part,  by  the  missions.  The  danger  was 
realized,  and  earnest  efforts  were  made  to  meet 
it.  Rules  were  laid  down  that  no  church  should 
be  organized  except  as  the  members  pledged  a 
certain  part  of  the  pastor's  salary;  that  only  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  cost  of  a  chapel,  school- 


THE   NATIVE   CHURCH  303 

house,  etc.,  should  be  provided ;  but  these  were 
by  no  means  always  effective,  and  it  was  impos- 
sible to  avoid  numerous  exceptions.  The  diffi- 
culty was  enhanced  by  the  knowledge  acquired 
by  the  people  of  the  wealth  of  the  churches  in 
the  West.  They  themselves  were  poor;  why 
should  they  pinch  themselves  when  the  people 
who  sent  the  missionaries  were  so  rich?  When 
urged  to  independence,  they  cared  httle  for  that. 
They  never  had  been  independent,  had  really  a 
very  faint  conception  of  what  independence  was, 
or  why  it  was  of  any  special  value  to  them.  It 
was  hard,  too,  for  the  missionaries  to  press  the 
topic.  It  seemed  cruel  to  urge  upon  these  peo- 
ple in  their  poverty  such  sacrifices  as  they  must 
make  in  order  to  carry  on  their  work.  Often 
when  a  good  start  had  been  made,  famine,  per- 
secution, or  some  general  disaster  came  in  to 
undo  what  had  been  done. 

The  situation  was  not  equally  bad  in  all  fields. 
Among  the  Karens  in  Burma  there  was  compara- 
tively little  difficulty  in  this  respect.  The  num- 
bers of  converts,  the  simple  manner  of  life,  the 
general  character  of  the  people,  made  the  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  easier.  In  Japan  the  self- 
assertion  of  the  Japanese  has  been  an  important 
element  in  developing  independence  of  mission 
funds.  In  some  fields,  however,  it  has  been  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  secure  substantial  advance, 
and  the  situation  has  been  most  serious,  produc- 
ing various  evils  which  threaten  the  very  life  of 
the  churches.  One  of  these  is  the  introduction 
into  them  of  "  rice  Christians,"  as,  from  the  Chi- 
nese custom,  those  are  called  who  enter  the 
Church  for  personal  advantage.  While  the 
number  of  these  has  probably  at  no  time  been 
as  large  as  some  alarmists  have  declared,  it  has 


304  ORGANIZATION   AND   METHODS 

been  large  enough  to  do  great  harm.  Another 
evil  has  been  the  idea  that  the  native  communi- 
ties could  control  foreign  funds  to  an  unhmited 
extent.  This  has  arisen  partly  through  the  visits 
to  America  of  natives  who  have  been  feted  and 
flattered  and  gone  back  with  the  idea  that  the 
missionaries  were  lording  it  over  them ;  partly 
from  the  very  wish  of  the  missionaries  to  train 
them  in  the  use  of  funds.  In  not  a  few  missions 
the  natives  have  taken  the  ground  that  the  money 
contributed  in  America  was  for  them  and  be- 
longed to  them  to  disburse,  not  to  the  mission- 
aries. The  result  has  been  serious  collisions 
between  the  missions  and  the  natives,  and  when 
there  have  not  been  collisions  there  have  been 
misunderstandings  dangerous  to  the  prosperity 
of  the  work. 

Return  to  Primitive  Methods.— A  vol- 
ume, however,  might  be  written  on  this  topic. 
It  is  sufficient  for  the  present  purpose  to  say  that 
the  boards  and  missions  are  making  a  strenuous 
attempt  to  secure  a  wider  extension  of  the  prac- 
tice of  self-support,  with  a  view  to  the  strength- 
ening of  the  native  church.  Considerable  at- 
tention has  been  directed  to  a  book  on  "The 
Methods  of  Missions,"  by  John  L.  Nevius,  D.D., 
of  the  Mission  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  the 
United  States  of  America  in  China.  The  central 
thought  of  this  book  is  a  return,  so  far  as  possi- 
ble,—and  Dr.  Nevius  claims  that  it  is  possible  far 
more  than  some  suppose,— to  the  earlier  methods 
of  the  Church.  He  advocates  the  selection  in 
new  places  of  persons  as  elders,  who  are  not  to 
give  their  whole  time  to  the  church,  but  are  to 
grow  up  with  the  church,  instructed  from  time 
to  time  by  the  missionary.  Other  similar  sugges- 
tions are  made  as  to  the  selection  of  converts  for 


THE  NATIVE  CHURCH  305 

education,  volunteer  and  unpaid  work,  etc.  In 
general  it  is  true  that  a  marked  advance  in  this 
respect  has  been  noted  during  the  past  few  years, 
and  the  native  church  is  stronger  to-day  wher- 
ever it  is  than  at  any  time  before. 

Social  Developments.— The  Church  exists 
not  merely  for  itself,  but  for  the  community  and 
the  nation.  So  long  as  it  includes  in  its  mem- 
bership only  a  portion  of  the  community  it  has 
a  special  duty  to  that  portion  which  is  outside  of 
it.  Church-members,  as  has  been  said  already, 
have  social  and  civil  duties  to  perform.  They 
must  perform  them  in  a  Christian  way,  not  merely 
in  response  to  their  own  sense  of  duty,  but  in 
order  to  indicate  to  others  what  Christianity  de- 
mands in  such  matters.  Here  is  one  of  the  most 
important  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most 
difficult  functions  of  the  Church.  It  cannot  be 
neglected,  yet  if  not  performed  rightly  it  occa- 
sions great  injury  to  the  Church  itself,  and  fur- 
nishes a  stumbling-block  to  the  world.  When  met 
wisely  its  influence  is  most  marked.  An  illustra- 
tion is  found  in  the  history  of  the  Evangelical 
Armenian  Church.  Its  members  were  looked 
upon  by  the  Gregorian  Church  as  recreant  not 
only  to  their  church  but  their  nation.  Through 
these  years  of  trial  they  have  shown  their  honor 
for  their  nation  as  well  as  for  their  faith,  and  that 
fact  has  had  much  to  do  with  breaking  down 
the  hostihty  felt  toward  them.  In  Japan  the 
noble  service  of  Christian  Japanese,  in  the 
government  and  in  the  army,  has  done  much  to 
disarm  opposition.  Similar  statements  might  be 
made  as  to  other  departments.  Social  customs 
that  were  evil  have  received  their  heaviest  blows 
from  the  native  Christian  Church,  and  to  it  busi- 
ness must  look  for  regeneration  in  heathen  lands. 


3o6  ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS 

That,  it  is  true,  is  chiefly  in  the  future.  The  past 
has  been  laying  foundations.  The  history  of  the 
past,  the  statement  of  the  present,  can  only  be 
understood,  however,  in  the  hght  of  the  future 
accomplishment,  not  merely  of  the  salvation  of 
a  number  of  individual  souls,  but  of  the  regen- 
eration of  society,  of  the  establishment  of  the 
entire  kingdom  of  God  on  earth. 


I 


APPENDIX  A 


TABLE  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  FOREIGN  MISSIONARY  SOCIE- 
TIES,   WITH    THE    DATE    OF    ORGANIZATION,    THE 
FIELDS  AT   PRESENT   OCCUPIED  IN  THE  ORDER 
OF  THEIR  OCCUPATION,  AND  THE  PAGES  ON 
WHICH  REFERENCE  IS  MADE  TO  THEM 

1649.  New  England  Company  (England) :  Indians  of 
North  America— 42,  103,  240. 

1 69 1.  Christian  Faith  Society  (England) :  general  aid  to 
churches  in  foreign  lands  and  to  missionary  so- 
cieties— 65. 

1698.  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge 
(England) :  general  publication  and  colporteur 
work — 43,  240. 

1 701.  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  (Eng- 
land) :  all  British  colonies,  Africa,  China,  the 
Pacific,  Japan,  etc. — 43,  58,  169,  179,  196,  240. 

1709.  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge 
(Scotland) :  general  publication  and  colporteur 
work — 61. 

1 72 1.  Danish  Missionary  Society:  India,  Greenland;  re- 
organized 1821—45,  85,  89,  102,  144,  240. 

1732.  Moravian  Society  (Germany) :  West  Indies,  Green- 
land, North  American  Indians,  South  America, 
South  Africa,  East  Indies,  Labrador,  Central 
America,  Central  Asia,  Australia,  Palestine, 
Alaska,  East  Africa— 46,  62,  102,  105,  106,  116, 
119,  123. 

1792.  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (England) :  India,  West 
Indies,  Central  Africa,  China,  Japan,  Palestine 
—  53.  72,  123,  144,  241. 

1795.  London  Missionary  Society  (England)  :  South  Sea 
Islands,  South  Africa,  West  Indies,  India,  New 
307 


3o8  APPENDIX  A 

Guinea,  East  Africa— 55,  62,  64,  67,  69,  85,  118, 
122,  125,  127,  144,  171,  174,  212,  216,  242. 

1797.  Netherlands  Missionary  Society  (Holland):  East 
Indies— 91,  166,  170. 

1797.  Church  Missionary  Society  (England):  West  Afri- 
ca, India,  New  Zealand,  Palestine  and  Egypt, 
Northwest  America,  China,  East  Africa,  Persia, 
Japan— 58,  59,  67,  85,  104,  118,  120,  122,  127, 
142,  145,  154,  179,  195,  215,  242,  248. 

1799.  Religious  Tract  Society  (England):  general  publi- 
cation and  colporteur  work — 63. 

1804.  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (England)  :  gen- 
eral translation,  publication,  and  distribution  of 
the  Scriptures— 63,  136,  157,  179,  196,  329. 

1809.  London  Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among 

the  Jews  (England) :  Europe  and  the  Levant— 64. 

1810.  American  Board  (United  States) :  India,  Hawaiian 

Islands,  Turkey,  China,  South  Africa,  Microne- 
sia, Japan,  Austria,  Mexico,  Spain,  West  Central 
Africa,  East  Central  Africa— 70,  75,  104,  107, 
108,  119,  121,  128,  141,  145,  152,  166,  177,  195, 
219,  248,  321. 
18 14.  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  (United 
States) :  Burma,  India,  Central  Africa,  China, 
Japan-72,  75,  120,  123,  145,  155,  163,  177,  195, 
248. 

1814.  Wesleyan    Methodist    Society    (England) :    Africa 

West  and  South,  India,  West  Indies,  New  Zea- 
land, South  Seas,  China — 60,  117,  120,  179,  216. 

1815.  Basle  Missionary  Society  (Germany) :  West  Africa, 

India,  China— 85,  120,  141,  145,  179. 

1816.  American  Bible  Society  (United  States):  general 

Scripture  translation,  publication,  and  distribu- 
tion—80,  108,  136,  179,  196,  248,  329. 

1816.   General  Baptist  Society  (England) :  India — 55,145. 

1819.  Methodist  Episcopal  Society  (United  States) :  West 
Africa,  South  America,  India,  China,  Bulgaria, 
Mexico,  Japan,  Korea,  Malaysia— 78,  107,  120, 
132,  155,  169,  179,  195,  210,  248. 

1819.   Leipsic  Society  (Germany) :  India — 87. 

1822.  Paris  Evangelical  Society  (France) :  South  Africa, 
South  Sea  Islands,  Central  Africa,  Madagascar— 
92,  119,  123,  125. 

1824.   Methodist  Society  of  Canada:  Japan— 83,  195, 

1824.  Berlin  Society  (Germany) :  South  Africa,  China— 
86,  123,  179. 


APPENDIX  A  309 

1826.  American  Tract  Society :  general  publication  and 

colporteur  work — 81. 
1829.   Established  Church  of  Scotland  Board :  India,  East 

Africa,  China — 62,  122. 
1829.   Rhenish  Society  (Germany) :  South  Africa,  Dutch 

East  Indies,  China,  New  Guinea— 86,  170,  179. 

1834.  Society  for   Promoting  Female   Education   in  the 

East  (England) :  India,  Turkey,  Egypt,  Persia, 
China,  Japan — 67. 

1835.  Swedish  Mission  Society :  South  Africa,  India— 90, 

119,  122,  123. 

1835.  Protestant  Episcopal  Society  (United  States) :  West 

Africa,  Greece,  China,  Japan,  West  Indies  — 79, 

120,  140,  179,  195. 

1836.  North  German  Society:  West  Africa — 87. 

1836.   Gossner  Society  (Germany):  India — 88,  145,  155. 
1836.   Reformed  Church  Board  (German,  United  States) : 

Japan- 74,  77,  195. 
1836.   Free  Baptist  Society  (United  States):  India— 55, 

I45»  195- 

1836.  Reformed     Presbyterian    Board,    General    Synod 

(United  States):   India— 132. 

1837.  Presbyterian  Board  (North,  United  States) :  Syria, 

Persia,  West  Africa,  India,  Siam,  China,  Japan, 
South  America,  Mexico,  Guatemala,  Korea — 74, 
107,  120,  132,  141,  145,  167,  177,  195,  210,  248. 

1839.  Lutheran  Society,  General  Synod  (United  States) : 

India,  West  Africa— 79,  145,  196. 

1840.  Edinburgh    Medical    Society    (Scotland) :    Japan, 

Syria — 63. 

1840.  Presbyterian  Board  (Ireland) :  India,  China,  Syria 

-131.  179- 

1841.  Welsh  Calvinistic  Society  (Wales) :  India— 64,  164. 

1842.  Reformed  Presbyterian  Board  (Scotland) :  Syria. 

1842.  Norwegian    Missionary    Society:     South    Africa, 

Madagascar,  China — 90,  119,  125. 

1843.  Free  Church  Board  (Scotland) :  India,  South  Africa, 

New  Hebrides,  East  Africa,  Syria,  Arabia— 62, 
119,  122,  142,  218. 

1844.  African     Methodist     Episcopal     Society     (United 

States) :  West  Africa,  West  Indies. 
1844.   Presbyterian  Board  (Canada) :  New  Hebrides,  West 

Indies,  China,  India— 83,  189,  218. 
1844.   South   American    Missionary   Society    (England) : 

Tierra  del  Fuego  and  almost  all  South  American 

countries— 64,  105. 


310  APPENDIX  A 

1845.    Methodist     Episcopal     Society     (South,     United 

States):  China,  Mexico,  Brazil,  Japan — 79,  179, 

196. 
1845.   Methodist    Protestant    Society    (United    States) : 

Japan— 79,  195.^ 
1845.   Southern  Baptist  Convention  (United  States)  :  West 

Africa,  China,  South  America,  Mexico,  Japan— 

75,  107,  121,  179,  196. 

1845.  Wesleyan  Methodist  Society  (United  States) :  West 

Africa. 

1846.  Ermelo  Society  (Holland):  East  Indies— 92,  170. 

1847.  Seventh-day  Baptist  Society  (United  States) :  China 

-179. 
1847.   Presbyterian  Board  (England) :  China,  India— 64, 

169,  179,  189. 
1847.   United  Presbyterian  Board  (Scotland):  West  In- 
dies, West  Africa,  India,  China,  Japan — 62,  145, 

179,  195,  210. 
1849.   Disciples  of  Christ  Society  (United  States) :  Turkey, 

India,  Japan,  China — 80,  179,  195. 
1849.   Hermannsburg  Society   (Germany) :   East  Africa, 

South  Africa,  India,  Australia,  New  Zealand — 

88,  119. 

1849.  Mennonite  Society  (Holland) :  East  Indies— 170. 

1850.  Melanesian  Mission  (New  Zealand) :  New  Hebrides 

and  adjoining  groups — 60,  94,  215,  218. 

185 1.  Hawaiian      Evangelical     Association      (Hawaiian 

Islands) :  Micronesia— 95,  222. 
1853.   United  Brethren  in  Christ  (United  States):  West 
Africa— 120. 

1855.  Young  Men's  Christian  Association:  college  work, 

etc.— 82,  109,  157,  248. 

1856.  Java  Committee  (Holland) :  Java — 170. 

1856.  Evangelical  National  Society  (Sweden) :  East  Afri- 

ca,  India. 

1857.  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Board  (United  States)  : 

Mexico,  Japan— 77,  195. 

1858.  Reformed  Church  (Dutch,  United  States):  China, 

India,  Japan— 74,  77,  142,  179,  195. 

1858.  United  Presbyterian  Board  (United  States) :  Egypt, 
India— 77,  132,  141,  145. 

1858.  United  Methodist  Free  Churches  Society  (Eng- 
land) :  Australia,  New  Zealand,  East  Africa, 
West  Africa,  China— 121,  122. 

J858.  Dutch  Missionary  Society  (Holland) :  East  Indies 
-91,  170. 


APPENDIX  A  311 

1859.  Reformed  Presbyterian  Board  (Covenanter,  United 
States) :  Turkey— 77,  132. 

1859.  Methodist  New  Connection  Society  (England) : 
China— 179. 

1859.    Utrecht  Society  (Holland):  East  Indies— 92. 

1859.  Dutch  Reformed  Society  (Holland):  East  Indies 
-92. 

1859.   Finland  Missionary  Society :  South  Africa. 

i860.  Christian  Reformed  Society  (Holland)  :  East  Indies 
—92,  170. 

i860.  National  IBible  Society  (Scotland)  :  general  Scrip- 
ture translation,  publication,  and  distribution — 

63,  179,  196,  329. 

i860.  Universities'  Mission  (England) :  East  Africa — 60, 

64,  122. 

1861.   Strict  Baptists  (England) :  India. 

1861.  Woman's     Union     Missionary     Society     (United 

States) :   India,  Japan — 82. 

1862.  Presbyterian  Board  (South,  United  States) :  China, 

Brazil,   Mexico,  Greece,  Japan,   Central  Africa, 
Korea— 77,  132,  140,  179,  195,  210. 

1865.  China  Inland  Mission  (England) :  China— 66,  107, 

179,  244,  266. 

1866.  Baptist  Society  (Canada)  :  India— 84. 

1867.  Friends'   Society   (England) :    India,   Madagascar, 

China,  Turkey — 64,  108. 

1869.  Lutheran  Society,  General  Council  (United  States)  : 

India— 80. 

1870.  Primitive  Methodist  Church  (England) :  Australia, 

New    Zealand,    West    Africa,    South    Africa— 
119. 

1871.  United    Original    Secession    Church   (Scotland) : 

India. 

1874.  Free  Churches  (French,  Switzerland)  :  South  Africa 

-93,  119- 

1875.  Associate  Reformed  Synod  (South,  United  States)  : 

Mexico— 74,  77. 

1876.  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Board  (United  States) : 

Japan,  Mexico. 
1878.   Evangelical  Association  (United  States)  :  Japan. 
1 88 1.   Congregational  Society  (Canada) :  West  Africa. 
1881.  German  Baptist  Brethren  (United  States) :  India. 

1881.  North  Africa  Mission  (England) :  North  Africa— 

124. 

1882.  Breklum  Society  (Germany) :  India — 89. 

1884.  Colored  Baptist  Society  (United  States) :  Africa. 


312  AtPENDiX  A 

1885.  Bible  Christian  Society  (England) :  Australia,  New 

Zealand,  China. 

1886.  American  Christian  Convention   (United  States): 

Japan. 
1889.   Adventist  Society  (United  States):  Africa,  Pacific 
Islands. 

1889.  German  Evangelical  Synod  (United  States)  :  India. 

1890.  Universalis!  Society  (United  States)  :  Japan. 

1891.  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance  (United  States)  : 

Central  Africa,  India,  China,  Palestine,  South 
America,  Bulgaria,  Japan,  West  Indies— 81,  107, 
244. 


INDEX 


Abyssinia,  19,  35,  43,  122. 

Africa,   19,  32,  3b,  48,  55,  57,  60,  61,  62,  64,  72,  78,  81, 

92,  93,  no  et  seq. 
Armenians,  18,  35,  129  et  seq.,  141,  143. 
Bible  translation,  etc.,  17,  21,   23,  32,  63,  103,  117,  128, 

136,  150  et  seq.,  157,  163,  171,  199,  210,  301,  327. 
Bradley,  Daniel  B.,  166. 
Brainerd,  David,  52,  62,  68. 
Buddhism,  148,  162,  176,  196. 
Bulgarians,  23,  134,  140. 
Burma,  162  et  seq. 
Burns,  W.  C,  66. 
Carey,  William,  52,  53,  68,  91,  144,  150,  163,  21 1,  231, 

.241,  252, 
Caswell,  Jesse,  167. 
Central  America,  3$,  48,  72,  99  et  seq. 
Chaldeans,  129. 

China,  22,  31,  55,  57,  60,  66,  72,  78,  86,  173  et  seq. 
Coke,  Thomas,  50,  61,  117. 
Coligny,  Admiral,  40. 
Confucianism,  176,  196. 
Copts,  129,  134,  141,  143. 
Doshisha  University,  200,  206. 
D wight,  H.  G.  O.,  128,  130. 
East  India  Company,  50,  59,  71,  144,  146. 
East  Indies,  41,  78,  91,  169  et  seq. 
Education,  23,  27,  34,  63,  107-109,  1 15,  I2i,  135,  151  et 

seq.,    164,  171,  183,  199,  208,  223,  233-235,  317  et 

seq. 
Edwards,  Jonathan,  52,  103. 
Eliot,  John,  42,  68,  103. 
Gardiner,  Allen,  64,  105, 
Greece,  79,  127  et  seq.,  140. 

319 


320  INDEX 

Greenland,  46,  47,  90,  102. 

Gutzlaff,  85,  87,  91,  166,  194. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  72,  219  et  seq. 

Hinduism,  31,  148,  156. 

India,  18,  30,  42,  45,  55,  59,  62,  64,  71,  73,  86,  144  et 

seq. 
Islam,  24,  113,  129,  139,  143,  148,  170. 
Jacobites,  129,  131,  134,  143. 
Japan,  31,  60,  72,  77,  191  et  seq. 
Jesuits,  29,  S3^  95>  100,  174. 
Jews,  missions  to,  129. 
Judson,  Adoniram,  70,  73,  163. 
Kols,  155. 
Korea,  76,  78,  209. 
Leper  missions,  157. 
Livingstone,  David,  58,  64,  in,  118. 
Lone  Star  Mission,  155. 
Lull,  Raymond,  25,  230,  251. 
Maronitcs,  129,  131,  134. 
Martin,  W.  A.  P.,  183,  199. 
Martyn,  Henry,  147. 

Medical  work,  63,  115,  157,  177,  184,  315. 
Metla  Kahtla,  105. 
Mills,  Samuel  J.,  70,  81. 

Missionary  colleges,  early,  18,  21,  2^,  41,  46,  85,  86. 
Moffat,  Robert,  58,  118. 
Mongols,  24. 
Monte  Corvino,  24,  173. 
Morrison,  Robert,  58,  174. 
Native  Church,  137,    152,  158,  166,  187,    203,  221,  233, 

332. 
Neesinia,  Joseph,  199,  200,  203. 
Nestorians,   22,  24,  28,  35,  129,  131,  134,  140,  143,  173, 

307- 
Nevius,  John  L.,  188,  344. 

North  Americri,  34,  42,  48,  60,  62,  68,  99  et  seq. 
Nusairiyeh,  132. 

Persia,  15,  18,  72,  76,  127  et  seq. 
Revivals,  great,  155,  159,  165. 
Rhenius,  79,  85. 

Self-support,  137,  159,  166,  187,  205,  221,  340. 
Selwyn,  Bishop,  215. 
Shintoism,  19b. 
Siam,  76,  166  ft  seq. 
Smith,  Eli,  128,  130,  136. 
South  America,  ^;^,  40,  42,  44,  64,  79,  99  et  seq. 


INDEX  321 

South  Seas,  55,  57,  60,  61,  93,  211  et  seq. 

Sweepers,  155,  159. 

Taoism,  176. 

Taylor,  J.  Hudson,  66,  180,  245. 

Taylor,  Bishop  William,  79,  107,  266. 

Telugus,  155,  159. 

Turkey,  15,  35,  60,  72,  127  et  seq. 

Ulfilas,  21,  23,  233. 

Vanderkemp,  John,  58,  91,  118, 

Van  Dyck,  C.  V.  A.,  136. 

Von  Welz,  105. 

Wesley,  John,  49. 

West  Indies,  48,  50,  57,  61,  62,  79,  87. 

Willianis,  John,  58. 

Williams,  S.  Wells,  177,  178,  183,  194. 

Women,  work  for,  67,  82,  156,  167,  250,  253,  314. 

Xavier,    Francis,   30,  149,  158,  173,  191,   231,   242,  251, 

312. 
Ziegenbalg,  45,  116,  144,  255. 
Zinzendorf,  Count,  231,  241,  255. 


Selections   from 

Fleming  H.    Revell  Company's 

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Glances  at  China. 

By  Rev.  Gilbert  Reid,  M.A.,  Founder  of  the  Mission  to 
the  Higher  Classes.     Illustrated.      i2mo,  cloth,  80c. 

Pictures  of  Southern  China. 

By  Rev.  James  MacGowan.  With  80  Illustrations.  8vo, 
cloth,  $4.20. 

A  Winter  in  North  China. 

By  Rev.  T.  M.  Morris.  With  an  Introduction  by  Rev. 
Richard  Glover,  D.D.,  and  a  Map.     i2mo,  cloth,  $1.50. 

John  Livingston  Nevius, 

For  Forty  Years  a  Missionary  in  Shantung.  By  his  wife, 
Helen  S.  C.  Nevius.  With  an  Introduction  by  the  Rev. 
W.  A.  P.  Martin,  D.D.     Illustrated.     8vo,  cloth,  $2.00. 

The  Sister  Martyrs  of  Ku  Cheng. 

Letters  and  a  Memoir  of  Eleanor  and  Elizabeth  Saunders, 
Massacred  August  ist,  1895.  Illustrated.  i2mo,  cloth, 
$1.50. 

China. 

By  Rev.  J.  T.  Gracey,  D.D.  Seventh  edition,  revised. 
i6mo,  paper,  15c. 

Protestant  Missions  in  China. 

By  D.  WiLLARD  Lyon,  a  Secretary  of  the  Student  Volun- 
teer Movement.     i6mo,  paper,  15c. 


M/SSfONS.  CHINA  AND  FORMOSA. 
James  Gilmour,  of  Mongolia. 

His  Diaries,  Letters  and  Reports.  Edited  and  arranged 
by  Richard  Lovett,  M.A.  With  three  photogravure 
Portraits  and  Illustrations.     8vo,   cloth,  gilt  top,  $1.75. 

"  It  is  a  vivid  picture  of  twenty  years  of  devoted  and  heroic 
service  in  a  field  as  hard  as  often  falls  to  the  lot  of  a  worker  in  for- 
eign lands." — rhf  Congregationalist 

Among  the  Mongols. 

By  Rev.  James  Gilmour.    Illustrated.    i2mo,  cloth,  $1.25. 

James  Gilmour  and  His  Boys. 

Being  Letters  to  his  Sons  in  England.  With  facsimiles  of 
Letters,   a   Map    and  other  Illustrations.       i2mo,  cloth, 

^       $I.2S. 

Griffith  John, 

Founder  of  the  Hankow  Mission,  Central  China.  By 
William  Robson.  Missionary  Biography  Series.  Illus- 
trated.    i2mo,  cloth,  75c. 

John  Kenneth  Mackenzie, 

Medical  Missionary  to  China.  With  the  Story  of  the  first 
Chinese  Hospital.  By  Mrs.  Mary  I.  Bryson.  With  por- 
trait.    i2mo,  cloth,  $1.50. 

The  Story  of  the  China  Inland  Mission. 

By  M.  Geraldine  Guinness.  Introduction  by  J.  Hudson 
Taylor,  F.R.G.S.  Illustrated,  2  volumes,  8vo,  cloth, 
each,  $1.50. 

From  Far  Formosa : 

The  Island,  its  People  and  Missions.  By  Rev.  G.  L. 
Mackay,  D.D.,  23  years  a  missionary  on  the  island.  Well 
indexed.  With  many  Illustrations  from  photographs  by 
the  author,  and  several  Maps.  Fifth  thousand.  Popular 
edition.     8vo,  cloth,  $1.25. 

China  and  Formosa. 

The  Story  of  the  Mission  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
England.  By  Rev.  James  Johnson,  editor  of  *'  Missionary 
Conference  Report,  1888."  With  4  Maps  and  many 
illustrations,  prepared  for  this  work.     8vo,  cloth,  $1.75. 


cMISS/ONS.  INDIA, 
In  the  Tiger  Jungle. 

And  Other  Stories  of  Missionary  Work  among  the  Telugus, 
By  Rev.  Jacob  Chamberlain,  M.D.,  D.D.,  for  37  years  a 
Missionary  in  India.     Illustrated.      i2mo,  cloth,  $1.00. 

"  If  this  is  the  kind  of  missionary  who  mans  the  foreign  stations, 
they  will  never  fail  for  lack  of  enterprise.  .  .  .  The  book  is  withal 
a  vivid  and  serious  portrayal  of  the  mission  work,  and  as  such 
leaves  a  deep  impression  on  the  reader." — T/ie  Independent, 

The  Child  of  the  Ganges. 

A  Tale  of  the  Judson  Mission.  By  Prof.  R.  N.  Barrett, 
D.D.     Illustrated.     i2mo,  cloth,  $1.25. 

Adoniram  Judson. 

By  Julia  H.  Johnston.  Missionary  Annals  Series.  i2mo, 
paper,  net,  1 5c. ;  flexible  cloth,  net,  30c. 

Once  Hindu,  now  Christian. 

The  Early  Life  of  Baba  Padmanji.  An  Autobiography, 
translated.  Edited  by  J.  Murray  Mitchell,  M.  A.  i6mo, 
cloth,  75c. 

William  Carey. 

The  Shoemaker  who  became  "^the  Father  and  Founder  of 
Foreign  Missions."  By  Rev.  John  B.  Myers.  Missionary 
Biography  Series.  Illustrated.  Twenly-second  thousand. 
i2mo,  cloth,  75c. 

William  Carey. 

By  Mary  E.  Farwell.  Missionary  Annals  Series.  i2mo, 
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Alexander  DufF. 

By  Elizabeth  B.  Vermilye.  Missionary  Annals  Series. 
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Reginald  Heber, 

Bishop  of  Calcutta,  Scholar  and  Evangelist.  By  Arthur 
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i2mo,  cloth,  75c. 

Heavenly  Pearls  Set  in  a  Life. 

A  Record  of  Experiences  and  Labors  in  America,  India, 
and  Australia.  By  Mrs.  Lucy  D.  Osboi^n.  Ulustiated, 
i2mo,  cloth,  1 1. 50. 


{MISSIONS,  PERSIA  AND  INDIA, 


Persian  Lite  and  Customs. 

With  Incidents  of  Residence  and  Travel  in  the  Land  of  the 
Lion  and  the  Sun.  By  Rev.  S.  G.  Wilson,  M.A.,  for  15 
years  a  missionary  in  Persia.  With  Map,  and  other  Illus- 
trations, and  Index.  Second  edition,  reduced  in  price. 
8vo,  cloth,  $1.25. 

Justin  Perkins, 

Pioneer  Missionary  to  Persia.  By  his  son,  Rev.  H.  M. 
Perkins.  Missionary  Annals  Series.  i2mo,  paper,  net, 
15c.;  flexible  cloth,  net,  30c. 

Women  and  the  Gospel  in  Persia. 

By  Rev.  Thomas  Laurie,  D.D.  Missionary  Annals  Series. 
i2mo,  paper,  net,  15c.;  flexible  cloth,  net,  30c. 

Henry  Martyn,  Saint  and  Scholar. 

First  Modern  Missionary  to  the  Mohammedans.    1 78 1  - 1 8 1 2. 

By  George  Smith,  author  of  "Life  of  William  Carey," 

''The  Conversion  of  India,"  etc.      With  Portrait,  Map, 

and  Illustrations.     Large  8vo,  cloth,  gilt  top,  $3.00. 

"This  excellent  biography,  so  accurateK*  written,  so  full  of 

interest  and  contagious  enthusiasm,  so  well  arranged,  illustrated, 

and  indexed,  is  worthy  of  the  subject." — The  Critic. 

Henry  Martyn. 

His  Life  and  Labors:  Cambridge — India — Persia.  By  Jesse 
Page.  Missionary  Biography  Series.  Illustrated.  Eleventh 
thousand.     i2mo,  cloth,  75c. 

Henry  Martyn. 

Missionary  to  India  and  Persia.  1781 -181 2.  Abridged 
from  the  Memoir  by  Mrs.  Sarah  J,  Rhea.  Missionary 
Annals  Series.  i2mo,  paper^  net,  15c.;  flexible  cLth^ 
net,  30C. 

The  Conversion  of  India. 

From  Pantaenus  to  the  Present  Time,  a.  d.  ic);-i8c)-5.  By 
George  Smith,  CLE.,  author  of  "  Henry  Martyn."  Illus- 
trated.     i2mo,  cloth,  $1.50. 

The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

By  Rev.  Harlan  P.  Beach,  Educational  Secretary  of  W.e 
Student  Volunteer  Movement.  ':,tli  thousand.  1211.0, 
paper,  net,  25c.;  cloth,  50c. 


MISSIONS,  JAPAN. 


Rambles  in  Japan, 

The  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun.  By  Rev,  Canon  H.  B. 
Tristram,  D.D.,  F.R.S.  With  forty-six  illustrations  by 
Edward  Whymper,  a  Map,  and  an  index.  8vo,  cloth, 
$2.00. 

"A  delightful  book  by  a  competent  author,  who,  as  a  natural- 
ist, writes  well  of  the  country,  while  as  a  Christian  and  a  humanita- 
rian he  writes  with  sympathy  of  the  new  institutions  of  new  Japan." 

—  The  Indepetident. 

The  Gist  of  Japan  : 

The  Islands,  their  People,  and  Missions.      By  Rev.  R.  B. 
Peery,  A.m.,  Ph.D.,  of  the  Lutheran  Mission,  Saga.    Il- 
lustrated.    i2mo,  cloth  decorated,  $1.25. 
This  book  does  not  pretend  to  be  an  exhaustive  treatise  of  an 
exhaustless    topic;    it    does    pretend    to   cover  the    subject;  and 
whosoever  is  eager  to  know  the  "  gist "  of  those  matters  Japanese 
in  which  Westerners  are  most  interested— the  land,  the  people, 
the   coming  of  Christianity,  the  difficulties  and  prospects  of  her 
missions,  the  condition  of  the  native  Church— will  find  it  set  down 
in  Dr.    Peery's  book  in  a  very  interesting,  reliable,  instructive, 
and  condensed  form. 

The  Ainu  of  Japan. 

The  Religion,  Superstitions,  and  General  History  of  the 
Hairy  Aboiigines  of  Japan.     By   Rev.    John   Batchelor. 
With  80  Illustrations.     i2mo,  cloth,  Si.so. 
"Mr.  Batchelor's  book,  besides  its  eighty  trustworthy  illustra- 
tions, its  careful  editing,  and  its  excellent  index,  is  replete  with 
information  of  all  sorts  about  the  Ainu  men.  women,  and  children. 
Almost  every  phase  of  their  physical  and  metaphysical  life  has  been 
studied,  and  carefully  noted." — The  Nation. 

The  Diary  of  a  Japanese  Convert. 

By  Kanzo  Uchimura.      i2mo,  cloth,  $1.00. 

"  This  book  is  far  more  than  the  name  indicates.  It  is  the  only 
book  of  its  kind  published  in  the  English  language,  if  not  in  any 
language.  It  is  something  new  under  the  sun,  and  is  as  original  as 
it  is  new.  It  has  the  earmarks  of  a  strong  and  striking  individual- 
ity, is  clear  in  diction,  forceful  in  style,  and  fearless  in  criticism."— 
The  Interior. 

A  Maker  of  the  New  Japan. 

Joseph  Hardy  Neesima,  the  Founder  of  Doshisha  University. 
By  Rev.  J.    D.   Davis,   D.D.,   Professor  in  Doshisha.     Il- 
lustrated.   Second  edition.      i2mo,  cloth,  §1 .00. 
"The  life  is   admirably  and  spiritedly   written,  and  its  hero 
stands  forth  as  one  of  the  most  romantic  and   inspiring  figures  of 
modern  times,   a    benefactor  to  his  own  country  and  an  object  of 
tender  regard  on  our  part ;  for  it  was  to  the  United  States  that 
Mr.  Neesima  turned  for  light  and  help  in  his  educational  plans." 

—  The  Examiner, 


MISSIONS,  PACIFIC  ISLANDS. 
John  G.  Paton, 

Missionary  to  the  New  Hebrides.  An  Autobiography, 
edited  by  his  brother.  With  an  Introductory  Note  by  Rev. 
A.  T.  Pierson  D.D.  Illustrated.  Tenth  thousand.  2  vols., 
i2mo,  cloth,  gilt  top,  boxed,  net,  $2.00  ;  cheaper  edition, 
I  vol.,  i2mo,  cloth,  $1.50. 

"  We  commend  to  all  who  would  advance  the  cause  of  Foreign 
Missions  this  remarkable  autobiog^raphy.  It  stands  with  such  books 
as  those  Dr.  Livingstone  gave  the  world,  and  shows  to  men  that 
the  heroes  of  the  cross  are  not  merely  to  be  sought  in  past  ages." 
—  TAe  Christian  Intelligencer. 

Bishop  Patterson, 

The  Martyr  of  Melanesia.  By  Jessie  Page.  Missionary 
Biography  Series.  Illustrated.  Thirteenth  thousand. 
i2mo,  cloth,  75c. 

James  Calvert; 

Or,  From  Dark  to  Dawn  in  Fiji.  By  R.  Vernon.  Mis- 
sionary Biography  Series.  Illustrated.  Tenth  thousand. 
i2mo,  cloth,  75c. 

From  Darkness  to  Light  in  Polynesia. 

With  Illustrative  Clan  Songs.  By  Rev.  William  Wyatt 
Gill,  LL.D.     Illustrated.     i2mo,  cloth,  $2.40. 

John  Williams, 

The  Martyr  Missionary  of  Polynesia.  By  Rev.  James  J. 
Ellis.  Missionary  Biography  Series.  Illustrated.  Thir- 
teenth thousand.     i2mo,  cloth,  75c. 

Among  the  Maoris ; 

Or,  Daybreak  in  New  Zealand.  A  Record  of  the  Labors 
of  Marsden,  Selwyn,  and  others.  By  Jessie  Page.  Mis- 
sionary Biography  Series.     Illustrated.     i2mo,  cloth,  75c. 

Pioneering  in  New  Guinea, 

1877-1894.     By  James  Chalmers.     With  a  Map  and  43 
Illustrations  from    Original   Sketches   and     Photographs. 
8vo,    cloth,  $1.50. 
"  It  reveals  a  splendid  character,  and  records  a  noble  apostolic 

work.     It  is  a  notable  addition  to  our  missionary  literature  of  the 

high  class." — The  Standard. 

James  Chalmers, 

Missionary  and  Explorer  of  Rarotonga  and  New  Guinea. 
By  William  Robson.  Missionary  Biography  Series.  Illus- 
trated.   Fourteenth  thousand.     i2mo,  cloth,  75c. 


OMISSIONS,  AMERICA. 


On  the  Indian  Trail, 

And  Other  Stories  of  Missionary  Work  among  the  Cree 
and  Saulteaux  Indians.       By  Egerton  R.  Young,      Illus- 
trated by  J.  E.  Laughlin.     i2mo,  cloth,  $i.oo. 
Mr.  Young  is  well  known  to  readers  of  all  ages  as  the  author 
of  "Bv  Canoe  and  Dog  Train,"  "Three  Boys  in  the  Wild  North 
Land,  '  and  other  very  popular  books  describing  life  and  adventure 
in  the  g^^eat  Northwest.    The  stories  in  this  new  book  tell  of  some 
very  exciting  incidents  in  his  career,  and  describe  phases  of  life 
among  the  American  Indians  which  are  fast  becoming  things  c  f 
the  past. 

Forty- two  Years  Among  the  Indians  and 
Eskimos. 

Pictures  from  the  Life  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  Horden,  first 
Bishop  of  Moosonee.  By  Beatrice  Batty.  illustrated. 
i2mo,  cloth,  $i.oo. 

Vikings  of  To-Day; 

Or,  Life  and  Medical  Work  among  the  Fishermen  of 
Labrador.  By  Wilfred  T.  Grenfel,  M.D.,  of  the  Deep 
Sea  Mission.  Illustrated  from  Original  Photographs. 
Second  edition.     i2mo,  cloth,  $1.25. 

"The  author  has  been  in  charge  of  the  work  since  its  inception, 
and  writes,  accordingly,  with  special  authority  and  wealth  of  detail, 
both  as  to  the  methods  of  work  and  as  to  the  people— the  fearless, 
patient  Vikings— to  whom  he  has  dedicated  his  life."— 77^.?  £jc- 
am/ner. 

Amid  Greenland  Snows; 

Or,  The  Early  History  of  Arctic  Missions.  By  Jesse  Page. 
Missionary  Biography  Series.  Illustrated.  Tenth  thous- 
and.    i2mo,  cloth,  75c. 

Kin-da-Shon's  Wife. 

An  Alaskan  Story.      By  Mrs.  Eugene  S.  Willard.      Illus- 
trated.     Third  edition.     8vo,  cloth,  $1.50. 
"  From   beginning  to  end  the  book  holds  the  attention.    Mrs. 

Willard  has  shown  herself  peculiarly  well  qualified  to  write  such 

a  book." — Public  Opinion. 

David  Brainerd, 

The  Apostle  to  the  North  American  Indians.  By  Jesse 
Page.  Missionary  Biography  Series.  Illustrated.  Tiveljlh 
thousand.      i2mo,  cloth,  75c. 

South  America,  the  Neglected  Continent. 

By  Lucy  E,  Guinness  and  E.  C.  Millard.  With  a  Map 
in  colors  and  many  other  Illustrations.  Small  4to^  paper, 
50c.;  cloth,  75c. 


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